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Geography of Oklahoma 



CHAS.'N. GOULD, Ph. D. 

PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY 
THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA 

DIRECTOR 
OKLAHOMA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



1909 

BUNN BROTHERS 
, ARDMORE, OKLA. 



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Copyright, 1909 

BY 

CLINTON ORRIN BUNN 



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CiA'244 533 
JUL 29 1909 



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PREFACE. 

Very) little has been written on the geography of Okla- 
homa. At the time when this text was prepared, Ok- 
lahoma had been a state less than two years. Most county 
lines and county seats were established with statehood. 
While certain geographical features, such as rivers, moun- 
tains, rocks, and climate are permanent, others, like po- 
litical boundaries,' cities and government, often change 
rapidly. This is particularly true in a. new state like ours. 
Since statehood a number of county seats have been 
changed and others will probably be changed before the 
book leaves the press. 

For the most part, the subject matter of this volume is 
based on the writer's personal experience, gathered during 
the past fifteen years, while doing geological work in the 
various parts of the State. The work of other investi- 
gators has been consulted, however, where occasion re- 
quired, particularly the publications of Mr. Joseph A. 
Taff of the United States Geological Survey, who has 
spent a number of years in eastern Oklahoma. 

This book is intended primarily for students in the 
grades, although it is believed that until a more compre- 
hensive text is written, the facts contained may be use- 
ful for the high school or even for more advanced work. 
The primary thought has constantly been kept in mind, 
however, that many people will never learn more of the 
geography of Oklahoma than is contained in this volume. 
For that reason, the attempt has been made to combine 
simplicity of style with briefness and accuracy of state- 
ment. 

The greater part -of— the illustrations are from photo- 
graphs taken by the author. Pierce Larkin and E. Z. 
Carpenter prepared the drawings. 

Charles N. Gould. 
Norman, Okla., May, 1909. 




Ranj. H.Ntll, A Co,-. N.« I] , l| M.n 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 

Pages 
Location and Boundaries. — Location of Oklahoma, Boun- 
daries, Area, Government Maps 1-4 

CHAPTER II. 

Topography. — The Great Plains, The Highest and Lowest 
Points, Topographic Regions, Ozark Mountains, Ouach- 
ita Mountains, Arbuckle Mountains, 'Wichita Mountains, 
Arkansas Valley Region, Red River Valley Region, 
Sandstone Hills Region, Red'beds Plains Region, Gyp- 
sum Hills Region, High Plains Region 5-24 

CHAPTER III. 

Geology. — Kinds of Rocks, Geologic Periods, Sedimentary 
Rocks, Igneous Rocks, Oldest Rocks in Oklahoma, Ori- 
gin of Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains, Carboniferous 
Rocks, The Mississippian, The Pennsylvanian, The Per- 
mian-Triassic and Jurassic Times, Cretaceous Rocks, 
Tertiary Rocks, Quaternary Rocks 25-42 

CHAPTER IV. 

Underground Water. — Disposal of Rainfall, Underground 
Water, Movement of Underground Water, Springs, 
Mineral Springs, Wells. Artesian Wells , 43-49 

CHAPTER V. 

Drainage. — Origin of Streams, Chief Streams of Oklahoma, 
Character of Oklahoma Streams, Drainage Basins, Ar- 
kansas River, Grand River, Verdigris River, Poteau 
River, South Canadian River, North Canadian River, 
Cimarron River, Salt Fork River, Washita River, Red 
River, Lakes 50-62 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VI. 

Pages 
Weather and Climate. — Weather, Temperature, Air, Wind, 
Humidity, Precipitation, Weather Bureau, Cyclones, Cli- 
mate, Temperature, Humidity, Rainfall, Oklahoma Cli- 
mate 63-72 

CHAPTER VII. 

Vegetation and Animal Life. — Flora and Fauna, Flora of 
Oklahoma, Trees, Grasses, Mistletoe, Fauna of Okla- 
homa, Wild Animals, Birds, Snakes and Lizards, Tur- 
tles, Do-not-kill Snakes, Fishes 73-82 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Location of Indian Tribes. — Original Owners of Oklahoma, 
Homes of the Five Civilized Tribes, Migration of Five 
Civilized Tribes, Settlement of Friendly Indians in Ok- 
lahoma, Mode of Life 1 83-90 



CHAPTER IX. 

Early History and Settlement. — Old Oklahoma, Agitation 
Leading to the Opening of Oklahoma to Settlement, Op- 
ening of Oklahoma, No Man's Land, Other Reserva- 
tions, The Cherokee Strip, Greer County, The Kiowa 
County, Indian Territory, Work of Dawes Commission, 
Admission of Oklahoma, Character of Settlers 91-101 



CHAPTER X. 

Education. — Free Education, School Laws-, State Superin- 
tendent, Country Schools, City Schools, State Schools, 
Church Schools, Religious Denominations.. 101-107 



CHAPTER XL 

Government. — Constitution, Legislative Department, Execu- 
tive Department, Judicial Department, Local Govern- 
ment 108-111 



CONTENTS ix 

CHAPTER XII. 

Pages 
Agricultural Resources. — Soil Areas, Residual Soil, Trans- 
ported Soil, Corn, Wheat, Oats and Other Small Grain, 
Broom Corn, Cotton, Alfalfa, Prairie Hay, Fruits, Po- 
tatoes, Vegetables, Minor Crops, Stock Raising, Cattle, 
Horses, Hogs, Dairying, Poultry, The Farmer's Need. .112-125 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Mineral Resources. — Variety of Minerals in Oklahoma, The 
Fuels, Coal, Oil, Gas, Asphalt, Salt, Gypsum, Lead and 
Zinc, Building Stone, Clay, Sand 126-143 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Manufactures. — Need of Factories, Clay Products, Port- 
land Cement, Gypsum Plaster, Flour and Oil Mills, 
Other Manufacturing Plants, Future of Manufacturing 
Industries of Oklahoma 144-149 



CHAPTER XV. 

Commerce. — Land and Water Transportation, Oklahoma 

Rivers, Railroads 150-153 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Public Land Surveys. — Initial Point, Principal Meridian 
and Range Lines, Base Line and Township Lines, Con- 
gressional Township, Sections, Corner Stones, Cimarron 
Meridian 154-160 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Population, Cities and Counties. — Population and Emmi- 
gration, Growth of Cities, Oklahoma Cities, Oklahoma 
City, Muskogee, Guthrie, Shawnee, Enid, Ardmore,_Mc- 
Alester, Chickasha, Tulsa, Lawton, El Reno, Durant, 
Sapulpa, Bartlesville, Ada, Vinita, Norman, Stillwater, 

Alva, Edmond, Weatherford, Counties 161-173 

Pronouncing Vocabulary 174-175 

Index 176 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



The Washita River Gorge Frontispiece 

Fig. Page 

1. Products Grown on a Single Farm in Oklahoma 1 

2. Topographers at Work in the Field 3 

3. Topographic Regions of Oklahoma •.. 7 

4. Spring and Milkhouse in Eastern Oklahoma 8 

5. Rocks on Edge 10 

6. Turner Falls at a Distance of One Mile 11 

7. Near View of Turner Falls 12 

8. The Washita Gorge Showing Rock Crusher 13 

9. Rock Cut the R. R. Blasted Out of the Rocks 14 

10. Saddle Mountain 15 

11. Gypsum Hills, Blaine County 20 

12. Lake on High Plains 22 

13. Fossil Crinoid Stems 25 

14. Fossil Camarocrinus 26 

15. Conglomerate Rock 27 

16. Boulders of Oklahoma Granite near . Tishomingo 29 

17. Limestone on Edge, Oil Creek, Oklahoma 30 

18. Three Views of White Mound near Dougherty, Oklahoma 32 

19. Camp of Geology Students in the Arbuckle Mountains.... 33 

20. Folded Rocks 34 

21. Rocks on Edge 35 

22. Price's Falls, Arbuckle Mountains 36 

23. Cross-section of the Arbuckle Mountains Before Erosion.. 37 

24. Cross-section of the Arbuckle Mountains at the Present 

Time 37 

25. Spring at Old Fort Arbuckle 45 

Wall Built in 1852. 

26. Mineral Springs at Bromide 46 

27. Well Drilling Machine 47 

28. An Artesian Well at Lehigh 48 

29. Maps Showing the Drainage Basins of Oklahoma 52 

30. Valley of the Arkansas River in Kay County 53 

31. A Team Crossing the Canadian River in a Flood 56 

32. The Cimarron River, Showing Low Sandy Banks 58 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

33. Limestone in Washita Gorge 59 

34. View on Little River, Eastern Oklahoma 60 

35. Ferry Boat on Kiamitia River 61 

36. An Artificial Lake near Newkirk 61 

37. A Cyclonic Area Crossing Oklahoma 66 

38. Chart Showing the Monthly Temperature of Oklahoma.. 68 

39. Chart Showing the Mean Annual Precipitation of Ok- 

lahoma 69 

40. Chart Showing the Average Monthly Rainfall in Okla- 

homa 70 

41. Upland Timber in Eastern Oklahoma 74 

42. A Sawmill in Eastern Oklahoma 75 

43. Piles of Cross 'lies and Lumber at Bennington 76 

44. Rail Fence and Deadened Timber 77 

45. A Dwarf Elm o:i the High Plains 78 

46. Cottonwood and Elm Timber along a Stream in Western 

Oklahoma 79 

47. Buffalo Herd in the Forest Reserve in the Wichita 

Mountains 80 

48. A Map Showing the Location of Indian Tribes in Ok- 

lahoma Before the Settlement of the Whites 85 

49. Wichita Grass Houses 86 

50. Sac and Fox Bark Houses 87 

51. Conical Tepees of the Comanches 88 

52. Indian Papoose 89 

53. The Opening of Oklahoma 92 

54. Indian Cabin in Eastern Oklahoma 96 

55. Indian Cabin in the Timber 97 

56. Sod House in Western Oklahoma 98 

57. A Claim Shanty in Western Oklahoma 99 

58. Breaking Ground in the Timbered Country 100 

59. Modern Oklahoma Farm House 100 

60. Stone School House in Kay County 103 

61. Science Hall, State University 104 

62. Buildings at the A. & M. College 105 

63. Corn Awaiting Market 113 

64. Wheat Raising in Oklahoma 114 

65. Threshing Wheat in Northern Oklahoma 115 

66. Hauling Broom Corn to Market 116 

67. Cotton Going to Market 116 

68. A Train Load of Cotton 119 

69. Cotton Baled on Board Cars 119 

70. A Fruit Farm in Central Oklahoma 120 

71. Cattle on the Plains 122 

72. Map Showing the Mineral Products of Oklahoma 127 

73. A Coal Mine at Midway 128 



LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 

Fig. Page 

74. Coal Mine at Lehigh 129 

75. Oil Well Derricks at Cleveland 130 

76. Oil Gushing from a New Well 131 

77. A Tank Farm Near Copan 132 

78. A Train Load of Oil Leaving Bartlesville 133 

79. An Asphalt Mill and Mine Near Sulphur 134 

80. Streets of Ardmore Paved with Oklahoma Asphalt 135 

81. Salt Plains of Alfalfa County near Cherokee 136 

82. Zinc Mines near Miami 137 

83. Two Views Showing the Effect of a Blast in a Lime- 

stone Quarry at Crusher, Oklahoma 139 

84. Limestone Posts in Kay County 140 

85. Pioneer Telephone Building in Oklahoma, Built of Ok- 

lahoma Marble 141 

86. Ledge of Glass Sand at Bromide 142 

87. Portland Cement Mill at Dewey, Oklahoma 145 

88. Gypsum Ledges in Western Oklahoma... 146 

89. Cotton Oil Mill at Madill 147 

90. Interior of a Cotton Mill at Guthrie 148 

91. Zinc Smelter at Bartlesville 148 

92. Diagram of a Township Showing Each of the Subdi- 

visions 156 

93. Diagram Showing How a Section May Be Divided 157 

94. A Modern Office Building at Oklahoma City 163 

95. Court House at Oklahoma City 164 

96. Masonic Temple at McAlester 165 

97. Busby Hotel at McAlester 166 

98. Smoke from Burning Oil 167 

99. A Bird's Eye View of Sapulpa Showing Burning Oil in 

the Distance 168 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

CHAPTER I. 
LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES. 



Location of Oklahoma, Oklahoma is situated a little 
south of the center of the United States. Oklahoma City, 
which, is not far from the center of Oklahoma, is about 
200 miles south of the geographical center of the nation. 
It is about 450 miles north of the Gulf of Mexico, 800 
miles south of Canada, 1,300 miles from New York and 
almost an equal distance from San Francisco. 




Fig. 1. Products Grown on a Single Farm in Oklahoma 

1 



2 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Although on regional maps of the United States Okla- 
homa is classed as the most northwestern of the southern 
states, there is no state in the Union which combines 
greater variety of soil, climate, crops, and inhabitants. 
Upon a single farm can be seen products that grow in 
the states from Minnesota to Florida and from Maine to 
California. (Figure 1 shows the products grown on a 
single- farm.) In character of inhabitants and variety 
of crops and industries the southern part of Oklahoma re- 
sembles the southern states; northern Oklahoma is in 
the same class with such states as Kansas, Iowa, and 
Illinois ; western Oklahoma has all the characteristics of a 
far western state. 

Boundaries. The boundaries of Oklahoma have been 
determined by the boundaries of the older states which 
touch it. Red River on the south, which separates Okla- 
homa from Texas, is the only natural boundary. Three 
straight lines form the eastern boundary and mark off 
Oklahoma from Missouri and Arkansas. The line be- 
tween Oklahoma and Missouri was originally drawn from 
the mouth of the Kansas River at Kansas City south to 
the parallel of 36° 30'. The line from the Arkansas River 
south to Red River was drawn from a point 100 paces 
west of old Fort Smith, thus separating Arkansas from 
the old Choctaw Nation. The third straight line was 
drawn diagonally northwest and southeast from Fort 
Smith to the southwest corner of Missouri. The northern 
boundary of Oklahoma is formed by the 37th parallel of 
latitude, which is also the southern line of Kansas and 
Colorado. The extreme western line of the state lies in 
longitude 103° west and separates Oklahoma from New 
Mexico. The main part of the state, however, extends 



LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES 3 

only to the 100th meridian, the eastern line of the Pan- 
handle of Texas. The southern line of the three western 
counties is the parallel of 36° 30', the same as the south- 
ern line of Missouri. 

Area. The greatest distance across the state is from 
east to west along the northern boundary, and measures 
467 miles. The greatest distance from north to south 
along the eastern line is 230 miles. Oklahoma contains 




Fig. 2. Topographers at Work in the Field 

about 70,430 square miles, or 45,075,200 acres of land — 
enough to make 381,720 farms of 160 acres each. 

Government Maps. That part of Oklahoma which was 
formerly Indian Territory, as well as a part of the Ter- 
ritory of Oklahoma, has been surveyed and mapped by 
the United States Geological Survey. These maps have 
been carefully prepared and show all the streams, hills, 
and valleys, as well as the location of the roads, rail- 
roads, cities, and houses that were present when the 
map was made. These maps are known as topographic 
sheets and represent from 800 to 1,000 square miles each. 
(Figure 2 shows a party of students from the State Uni- 



4 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

versity preparing topographic maps in the field.) The 
government maps may be purchased of the Director of 
the Survey, at Washington, for five cents each, or three 
dollars per hundred. Folios, which contain a geologic 
map showing the location of the various formations and 
the different valuable minerals, have been published of 
the Atoka, Ooalgate, Tishomingo, Tahlequah and Musko- 
gee sheets. The folios are sold for twenty-five cents 
each. A good county map of Oklahoma may be ob- 
tained by senlding twelve cents to the Superintendent of 
Documents at Washington, D. C. These maps contain 
the very latest information on the subjects treated, and 
are sold practically at cost. Students are urged to pur- 
chase a state map and a topographic sheet of their home 
region. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Locate Oklahoma in the United States. 

2. How far is Oklahoma from New York? From San Fran- 
cisco? From Canada? 

3. Bound Oklahoma. 

4. What river forms the southern boundary of Oklahoma? 

5. How were the three straight lines located which form the 
eastern boundary? 

6. "What parallel forms the northern boundary? 

7. What two meridians form the western boundary? 

8. What is the greatest distance across the State from east to 
west? From north to south? 

9. What is the area of Oklahoma in square miles? In acres? 
10. How many 160-acre farms would it contain? 



CHAPTER II. 
TOPOGRAPHY. 

The Great Plains. Oklahoma is located in that part of 
the United States known as the Great Plains. The Great 
Plains slope from the Rocky Mountains on the west to 
the Mississippi River on the east. The Plains appear to 
be nearly level, but in fact uear the mountains the eleva- 
tion is more than a mile above the ocean. 

The Highest and Lowest Points. The highest point in 
Oklahoma is on Black Mesa in the extreme northwestern 
corner of Cimarron County, the most western county in 
the state. Black Mesa is a flat-topped hill made up of 
black lava rock which was long ago poured out from a 
volcano. It is about 4,800 feet above sea level. Prom 
this point the surface of Oklahoma slopes gradually to 
the east. The average slope is about eight feet to the 
mile, which is so slight that one can hardly see that the 
country slopes at alii. 

The lowest points in the state are along the eastern 
line where the two largest rivers flow from Oklahoma 
into the state of Arkansas. The Arkansas River flows 
from Oklahoma at Port Smith, and the Red River at the 
extreme southeast corner of the state. At these places 
the elevation above sea level is between 300 and 400 feet. 

The greater part of Oklahoma consists of grass-covered 
"rolling prairie," with occasional ranges of hills trend- 
ing usually north and south. In the southern and the 

5 



6 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

eastern parts of the state there are a number of ranges 
and groups of hills, some of which rise to the dignity of 
mountains. These hills and mountains are usually covered 
with timber. Between the hills are areas of rolling and 
level country, sometimes timbered, sometimes prairie. 

Topographic Regions. The unevenness of land surfaces 
is called Relief, or Topography. A part of the country 
containing the same general form's of relief is called a 
Topographic Region. Oklahoma may be divided into the 
following ten Topographic Regions : 

The Ozark Mountains. 

The Ouachita Mountains. 

The Arbuckle Mountains. 

The Wichita Mountains. 

The Arkansas Valley Region. 

The Red River Valley Region. 

The Sandstone Hills Region. 

The Redbeds Plains Region. 

The Gypsum Hills Region. 

The High Plains Region. 

It must be understood that there is no sharp line of 
division between these various regions in Oklahoma. In 
most instances one region grades insensibly into another, 
so that it is often impossible to say just where one region 
ends and another begins. For instance, the exact line 
of separation between the Arkansas Valley region and 
the Sandstone Hills region can not be determined. In 
studying the different regions turn to the topographic 
map, Figure 3, and locate each region. 

Ozark Mountains. The Ozark Mountains of Oklahoma 
include only a small portion of this uplift which oc- 
cupies a great part of southern Missouri. In northern 




& 



8 



GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 



Arkansas the same range is known as the Boston Moun- 
tains. There are no very high peaks or ridges in these 
mountains, but the region is a high level table-land, 
covered with a floor of white limestone. This is the 
rock which contains the lead and zinc at Joplin in 
southern Missouri. The general level of this plateau in 
Oklahoma is about 600 feet above the lowlands, or about 
1,100 feet above sea level. The Arkansas River flows 
south of the mountains and the Grand west of them. A 




Fig. 4. Spring and Milkhouse in Eastern Oklahoma 



number of small streams rise on the flat upland and flow 
south and west into the Arkansas or the Grand. The 
largest of the streams flowing south into the Arkansas 
are Lees Creek, Sallisaw Creek, Vian Creek, and the Illi- 
nois River. Those flowing west into the Grand are Clear, 
Spring, Saline and Spavinaw creeks. All these streams 
and their many branches have cut deep and narrow val- 
leys in the mountains, forming steep and rocky cliffs and 
bluffs. Some of the finest scenery in Oklahoma is found 
along these valleys. The mountains are in most places 



TOPOGRAPHY 9 

densely wooded. Oak, hickory, elm, walnut and persim- 
mon trees are most common. 

In the Ozark region there are thousands of springs. 
Some of the purest water in the United States comes 
from these springs. Tahlequah, the old Cherokee capital, 
is located on the site of strong springs and such towns 
as Wauhillau, Stilwell, and Westville all have fine springs. 
There is scarcely a farm house in the whole region that 
does not use spring water. (Figure 4 shows one of these 
springs and a milk house.) Eureka Springs, Siloam 
Springs, Electric Springs, and Monte Ne are health re- 
sorts in Arkansas located by springs of the same kind 
as those in Oklahoma. Ottawa, Delaware, Adair, Chero- 
kee and parts of Sequoyah, Mayes, and Craig counties 
are located in the Ozark Mountains. The largest towns 
are Tahlequah, Miami, Westville and Stilwell. 

Ouachita Mountains, The name Ouachita (Wa-she-taw) 
Mountains is often used to include a number of chains 
and groups of mountains located in southeastern Okla- 
homa and southwestern Arkansas. The group of moun- 
tains as a whole extends from near Little Rock, Arkansas, 
westward nearly to Atoka, Oklahoma, a, distance of about 
200 miles. Only the western half of the group is in 
Oklahoma. 

The Ouachita Mountains in Oklahoma consist of a great 
many long narrow ridges composed of sandstone stand- 
ing on edge. These ridges are sometimes two thousand 
to three thousand feet above sea level. They lie parallel 
to each other, and usually extend northeast and south- 
west, and are separated by deep and narrow valleys. 
Some of the largest ridges of the Ouachitas are the Kia- 
mitia, Black Pork, Seven Devils, Winding Stair, Pine, and 



10 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Jack Fork mountains. Poteau River flows across the 
northern part of the group and Mountain Fork, Little 
River, Glover Creek, Kiamitia River and McGee Creek 
rise in the mountains and flow south. 

In general the mountains are well wooded, including 
some valuable forests of pine and oak. Some prairie 
land is found in the valleys. The Ouachitas in Oklahoma 
include southern LeFlore, Latimer and Pittsburg coun- 




Fig. 5. Rocks on Edge 



ties, eastern Atoka and northern Pushmataha and Mc- 
Curtain counties. There are no large towns in the moun- 
tains. This is the roughest part of Oklahoma and fewer 
people live here than in any other section of the State. 
The land is not suitable for agricultural purposes and has 
few mineral deposits. 

Arbuckle Mountains. The Arbuckle uplift occupies an 
area 60 miles long and 20 miles wide in southern Okla- 
homa. Only that part of the uplift which lies west of 




11 




Fig. 7. Near View of Turner Falls 



12 



TOPOGRAPHY 



13 



the Washita River is usually spoken of as the Arbuckle 
Mountains, but the name may well be applied to the entire 
range of rocky hills that extends as far east as Wapa- 
nucka. The rocks are largely massive ledges of lime- 
stone which have been upheaved, broken, folded and 
twisted until they are highly inclined, standing on edge 
as in Fig. 5. There are occasional peaks and rounded 
hills composed of granite. The granite is exposed in a 




Fig. 8, The Washita Gorge Showing Rock Crusher. 



large area north and northeast of Tishomingo, and in 
the East Timbered Hills and West Timbered Hills west 
of Washita River, southwest of Davis. The highest peaks 
are only 700 feet above the surrounding plain or 1,400 
feet above sea level. 

There are many strong flowing springs in the Arbuckles, 
and a number of picturesque waterfalls. Figs. 6 and 7 
are two views of Turner Falls. Sulphur and Bromide are 
two health resorts which have grown up around mineral 
springs near the edge of the mountains. Such creeks as 



14 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Honey, Palls, Rock, Canyon, Pennington, Blue and Mill 
are fed largely by springs. The Washita River flows 

across the mountains in 
a deep canyon which 
it has cut in the lime- 
stone rocks, as shown 
in Fig. 8. The Santa 
Fe Railroad follows the 
canyon of the Washita 
in a roadbed blasted 
out of the solid rock as 
in Fig. 9. The slopes 
of the hills are usually 
covered with timber ; 
the limestone-covered 
uplands are mostly 
prairie. There are no 
large towns in the 
mountains. The Ar- 
buckles include parts 
of Murray, Garter, Pon- 
totoc and Johnston 
counties. 

Wichita Mountains. 
The Wichita Moun- 
tains in southwestern 
Oklahoma extend from 
Fig 9. Rock Cut. The Railroad Lawton to Granite, a 
Blasted out of the Rocks. ' 

distance of 60 miles. 

The greater part of the Wichitas consists of scattered 
ranges, groups, and sharp, jagged peaks of granite and 
porphyry. The peaks are only the tops of buried moun- 




TOPOGRAPHY 



15 



tains projecting above a sea of plain. Mt. Scott, ten miles 
northwest of Lawton, is the highest peak. It is a round 
mountain of granite 1,200 feet above the level of the 
plain and 2,400 feet above sea level. Some other promi- 
nent peaks are Mount Sheridan, Mount Baker, Saddle 
Mountains (see Fig. 10), Tepee Mountain, Devil's Can- 
yon Mountain and Headquarters Mountain. There is a 
little timber in the valleys and on some of the slopes in 




Fig. 10. Saddle Mountain 

Photograph by Dedrick, Talog-a, Okla. 

the eastern part of the range, but most of the granite 
peaks have no vegetation. 

There are a number of strong springs among the moun- 
tains. Most of the larger creeks, such as Medicine Bluff, 
Rainy Mountain, Blue Beaver, Cache and others, head in 
mountain springs. The Wiehitas are located in Comanche, 
Kiowa, Jackson and Greer counties. Lawton, Granite 
and Snyder are the largest towns near the mountains. 

Arkansas Valley Region lies along the Arkansas and 



16 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Canadian rivers between the Ozark and Ouachita regions, 
extending southwest till it touches the eastern end 
of the Arbuckle uplift. The western limit where it 
merges with the Sandstone Hills region is poorly denned. 
The rocks consist of massive ledges of sandstone and 
shale, which have been thrown up by some internal force 
into immense folds, and afterward worn down by water, 
wind and frost, leaving a number of groups and ranges 
of high hills, some of which are more than 2,000 feet above 
sea level. The most prominent elevations, such as Cav- 
inal, Sansbois, Sugar Loaf, Potato, Wild Horse, Rattle- 
snake, Kiowa and Beaver, are known locally as moun- 
tains. Between these various elevations are broad fertile 
valleys. The region is mostly timbered, although prairie 
land is found in the level country. This is the great coal 
country of Oklahoma. More than half the coal in the 
state lies in this region. For this reason it is destined to 
become one of the wealthiest parts of the state. All or 
part of Sequoyah, LeFlore, Haskell, Muskogee, Pittsburg, 
Mcintosh, Latimer, Atoka and Coal counties are included 
in the Arkansas Valley region. A number of towns of 
considerable size are located in this region, the largest of 
which are McAlester, Coalgate, Lehigh, Wilburton, Po- 
teau, Spiro, Sallisaw, Bokoshe, Stigler, Eufaula and Che- 
cotah. 

Red River Valley Region. This region includes that 
portion of Oklahoma which lies north of Red River and 
south of the Ouachita and Arbuckle Mountains. It ex- 
tends west to the Redbeds Plains south of the western end 
of the Arbuckles and grades into them. This is the low- 
est topographic region in Oklahoma, the average eleva- 
tion above the sea being not more than 600 feet. A num- 



TOPOGRAPHY 17 

ber of streams which rise in the mountains to the north 
and flow south across the region have carved out broad 
valleys. Little River, Kiamitia, Boggy, Blue and Washita 
rivers are the largest of these. The rocks are soft sand- 
stone and shales, interstratified with two ledges of rather 
hard limestone, in which stream erosion has carved out 
low hills, and, in places, steep cliffs. The sandstone and 
shale exposures are usually wooded; the limestone areas 
are often prairie. Part or all of McCurtain, Choctaw, 
Bryan, Pushmataha, Atoka, Johnston, Marshall, Love and 
Carter counties lie in the Red River Valley region. The 
chief towns in the region are Ardmore, Marietta, Madill, 
Durant, Caddo and Hugo. 

Sandstone Hills Region. The Sandstone Hills region 
includes that part of Oklahoma extending west from the 
Ozark Mountains and the Arkansas Valley region about 
as far as the main line of the Santa Fe Railroad, and 
from Kansas south to the Arbuckle Mountains. Through- 
out this region the rocks, which consist of alternating 
strata of soft shales and hard sandstones, either lie level 
or dip slightly to the west. The slope of the country is to 
the east. Erosion has worn away the soft shales and 
left the hard sandstone standing as prominent hills, which 
often form continuous ridges extending in a general north- 
east-southwest direction for many miles. In many cases, 
however, isolated buttes stand out on the level plain. The 
steep slope of all these hills is to the east, while the west- 
ern slope is long and gentle. Some prominent ranges and 
peaks that have received distinctive names are Concharty 
Mountains, Council Hill, Bald Hills, Twin Knobs, Outlaw 
Mountain, Mount Inola, Catoosa Hills, Scaly Bark Moun- 
tain, Osage Knob, Chimney Hill, Shawnee Hills and 



18 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Claremore Knob. Flat prairie lands and wooded stream 
valleys occur between the hills. Many large rivers cross 
this region, including Arkansas, Verdigris, Grand, the 
three Canadians and Cimarron, with their numerous trib- 
utaries. 

In the northern part of this region are the Flint Hills, 
which occupy western Osage and eastern Kay counties. 
The name comes from a number of ledges of flint which 
occur in heavy ledges of limestone. The flint is harder 
than the limestone and other rocks which form the hills. 
Where everything else has been worn away the flint re- 
mains, covering the ground. In Kansas the Flint Hills 
are higher and the flint more common than in Oklahoma. 

The rougher parts of Sandstone Hills region, particu- 
larly the steep slopes, as well as the valleys, are forested ; 
the intervening plains are grass-covered. This region in- 
cludes all or part of the following counties: Craig, No- 
wata, Washington, Rogers, Mayes, Wagoner, Tulsa, Mus- 
kogee, Okmulgee, Mcintosh, Pittsburg, Coal, Hughes, 
Pontotoc, Garvin, Seminole, Pottawatomie, McClain, 
Cleveland, Lincoln, Okfuskee, Creek, Payne, Logan, 
Noble, Osage and Kay. 

This part of Oklahoma contains not only the greatest 
oil and gas fields in the State, but vast deposits of coal, 
clay and limestone. It is destined to become the great 
manufacturing region of Oklahoma. Many growing 
towns are located in this part of the State, the most im- 
portant of which are Muskogee, Shawnee, Tulsa, Bartles- 
ville, Vinita, Okmulgee, Holdenville, Pawhuska, Sapulpa, 
Wewoka, Okemah, Wagoner, Claremore, Pryor Creek, Ada, 
Chandler, Stillwater, Nowata and Pawnee. The soil is 
very fertile and a large variety of crops are raised. 



TOPOGRAPHY 19 

Redbeds Plains Region. The Redbeds Plains extend 
west from the Sandstone Hills region and the Arbuckle 
Mountains to the Gypsum Hills, and from Kansas south 
to Red River. The southwestern part of the region en- 
tirely surrounds the Wichita Mountains. The rocks are 
known as Redbeds ; they are largely soft clay shales, brick- 
red in color, with a few ledges of soft sandstone. The 
shales are so red that the water in the streams is colored 
blood-red. The surface is rolling. Steep bluffs are rare 
and high hills are unknown. Several rivers, Salt Pork, 
Cimarron, North Canadian, South Canadian, Washita and 
Red, flow across this region from northwest to southeast. 
These streams have carved broad and shallow valleys in 
the almost level plain. The south bluffs of these rivers 
for the greater part of their course in this region are cut 
up by small canyons and gulches, while the slope north 
of the rivers is unbroken and is often covered by sandhills. 
The high divides are remnants of the old plains surface, 
and their slopes to the east are so gentle as to be un- 
noticeable. One may often travel across the country for 
20 miles along some lines without ascending or de- 
scending 20 feet from the general level. 

The level plain is very fertile. There is very little waste 
land. It is the great wheat, alfalfa, cotton and corn coun- 
try of Oklahoma. Except along the streams, where timber 
is sometimes found, this region is prairie. It includes all 
or part of the following counties: Kay, Grant, Alfalfa, 
Woods, Major, Garfield, Noble, Logan, Kingfisher, Blaine, 
Oklahoma, Canadian, Cleveland, McClain, Grady, Caddo, 
Garvin, Stevens, Jefferson, Comanche, Tillman, Kiowa, 
Greer and Jackson. Many of the largest towns in the 
State are in this region, including Oklahoma City, Guth- 



20 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

rie, El Reno, Enid, Lawton, Chickasha, Norman, King- 
fisher, Alva, Newkirk, Ponca and Blackwell. 

Gypsum Hills Region. A great part of western Okla- 
homa is occupied by the Gypsum Hills region. The 
rocks here are red clay and shale as in the Redbeds 
Plains, but in this part of the State the red shales also 
contain hard members of gypsum and dolomite. These 
harder members weather out, forming high hills, cliffs 




Fig. 11. Gypsum Hills, Blaine County 

and out lying buttes, so that the topography is more 
broken than in the Redbeds Plains. 

There are three lines of Gypsum Hills in western Okla- 
homa. The first line, the so-called "Gyp Hills" of the 
cowboy, extends from Canadian County northwest to the 
Kansas line, crossing Blaine, Major, Woodward, Harper 
and Woods counties. These hills are 150 or 200 feet 
high, capped with two ledges of massive white gypsum 
15 to 20 feet thick (shown in Fig. 11) and rise like a wall 



TOPOGRAPHY 21 

above the Redbeds Plains to the east. Most of the gyp- 
sum plaster mills in Oklahoma are located along this line 
of hills. The second line of Gypsum Hills lies parallel 
to the line just described and is 40 to 50 miles further 
southwest. The highest hills are in Caddo, Washita, 
Custer, Dewey and Ellis counties. In this section of the 
State the hills are usually low white-topped, rounded gyp- 
sum knolls, which stand out on the plain or gentle slopes 
or along shallow streams. The third line of Gypsum Hills 
occurs in Jackson, Greer and Beckham counties. The 
ledges of gypsum are from 10 to 20 feet thick. Some of 
the hills consist of long, steep cliffs and some of rounded 
mounds. There are a number of hills in this region which 
are not formed by gypsum at all, but by hard ledges of 
dolomite or sandstone. For instance, the Red Hills be- 
tween Geary and Watonga, and the Caddo County Buttes 
southwest of Bridgeport, are formed by a heavy ledge of 
dolomite. The hills in northern Beckham, eastern Roger 
Mills and western Washita, Custer and Dewey counties 
are formed by heavy ledges of sandstone. Several large 
streams, including Salt Fork, Cimarron, North Canadian, 
South Canadian, Washita and branches of Red River flow 
southeast across the Gypsum Hills. These streams have, 
in most places, cut deep, steep-sided valleys among the 
gypsum and sandstone ledges, and, in many places, have 
formed conspicuous cliffs and bluffs. This is a fertile re- 
gion, as gypsum and dolomite are both good fertilizers. 
Corn is raised in all the counties; cotton in the southern 
part, and wheat in the northern section. The following 
counties are all or in part included in the Gypsum Hills 
region: Woods, Harper, Ellis, Woodward, Major, Blaine, 
Dewey, Canadian, Caddo, Custer, Roger Mills, Beckham, 



22 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Washita, Greer and Jackson. The chief towns are Wood- 
ward, Taloga, Cheyenne, Thomas, Watonga, Arapaho, 
Weatherford, Clinton, Elk City, Cordell, Sayre and Man- 
gum. 

High Plains Region. The High Plains includes the high- 
est part of the State and lie west of the Gypsum Hills 
and at a higher level. This region is a part of that vast 
level tract lying east of the base of the Rocky Mountains 
and extending from Canada to Mexico. In Oklahoma this 




Fig. 12. Lake on the High Plains 



plain slopes from an altitude of 4,800 feet in western 
Cimarron County to a little more than 2,000 feet in Wood- 
ward and Ellis counties. In this plain Cimarron River 
and Beaver Creek have cut their broad, shallow valleys. 
A number of smaller creeks are at work dissecting the 
level uplands. Large areas remain, however, which ap- 
pear to be as level as a floor and on which the only drain- 
age is into broad, shallow depressions or lakes, some- 
times called "buffalo wallows." One of these lakes is 
shown in Fig. 12. Until the last few years this has always 
been a cattle country. Recently the region has been settled 



TOPOGRAPHY 23 

and crops, particularly kafir corn, milo maize, broom 
corn and sorghum, are raised. The soil is very fertile, but 
lack of rainfall sometimes prevents the crops from ma- 
turing. There is no timber except an occasional lone elm, 
cottonwood or willow along a stream. The whole coun- 
try is covered with a soft carpet of buffalo grass, Cimar- 
ron, Texas, Beaver and parts of Harper, Ellis and Roger 
Mills counties are included in this region. The largest 
towns are Guymon and Beaver. 

QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 

1. Locate the Great Plains. 

2. In what part of the Great Plains is Oklahoma located? 

3. Where is the highest point in Oklahoma? 

4. What is the average slope across the State? 

5. What is the elevation of the lowest points in Oklahoma? 

6. In what part of Oklahoma is the surface level? 

7. Where are the mountains located? 

8. Define Belief; Topographic Eegion. 

9. Name and locate the different topographic regions in Okla- 
homa. 

10. What is the character of the topography in the Ozark 
Mountains? 

11. \vnat kinds of rocks are found? 

12. What is the average elevation? 

13. What rivers flow near the mountains? 

14. What creeks head in the mountains? 

15. What is the character of the vegetation? Of the water? 

16. Name the counties and cities in these mountains. 

17. Apply questions 10 to 16 to the Ouachita, Arbuckle, and 
Wichita Mountains. 

18. What is the character of the rocks in the Arkansas Valley 
Region? 

19. Name the principal peaks. 

20. What mineral is found in this region? 



24 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

21. Name the counties and chief cities. 

22. What streams cross the Red River Valley Region? 

23. What is the character of the vegetation? 

24. Name the counties and chief cities in the region. 

25. Locate the Sandstone Hills Region. 

26. What is the character of the rocks? 

27. What streams cross the region? 

28. Name the counties and chief cities. 

29. Apply questions 25, 26, 27 and 28 to the Redbeds Plains 
Region, the Gypsum Hills Region, and the High Plains Region. 

30. In what topographical region do you live? 

31. What large streams, mountains, or hills are located near 
your home? 



CHAPTER III. 



GEOLOGY. 



Kinds of Rocks. Oklahoma has a great many kinds of 
rocks and a great variety of soils. In some parts of the 
State there are mountains made up of solid granite; in 
other places the rocks are largely sandstone or limestone. 
In certain counties the only hard rock is white gypsum; 

in other localities there 
are no hard rocks of 
any kind exposed on 
the surface. 

Fossils. In some of 
the rocks of the State 
fossils may be found. 
Fossils are the remains 
of animals and plants 
which were alive when 
the rocks were laid 
down. Certain kinds 
of fossils are found in 
the rocks of certain 
ages. Geologists tell 
the age of the rocks by the kind of fossils contained in 
them. Shells, something like our modern clams and 
oysters, tribolites which resemble the modern crayfish or 
crab, and various forms of corals and other sea animals, 
two of which are shown in Figs. 13 and 14, are found 

25 




Fig. 13. Fossil Crinoid Stems 



26 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

preserved as fossils in the limestone rocks of many of 
the counties. In the coal regions there are remains 
of the leaves, stems and trunks of the plants which 
formed the coal. In southern Oklahoma immense coiled 
shells are found, something like our modern snail — many 
of which are three feet in diameter. On the High Plains 
in the western part of the State there are bones of the 
rhinoceros, tiger, camel and other large beasts which are 
not now found in North America. Bones of the masto- 
don, the extinct elephant, are found in many places. 




Fig. 14. Fossils — Camarocrinus 

Geologic Periods. Geologists divide the history of the 
earth, since the time of the first fossils, into the following 
ten great divisions or periods. They are arranged in order 
of their age, the last named being the oldest. 

Quaternary 

Tertiary 

Cretaceous 

Jurassic 

Triassic 

Carboniferous 



GEOLOGY 27 

Devonian 

Silurian 

Ordovician 

Cambrian 
Sedimentary Rocks. Rocks of these ages are some- 
times called sedimentary rocks because they were laid 
down as sediments in former oceans, and sometimes strati- 




Fig. 15. Conglomerate Rock 

fied rocks because they are composed of strata or layers 
lying one above another. By far the greater part of the 
sedimentary rocks belong to one of three classes : sand- 
stones, limestones or clays. Sandstones are composed of 
sand grains cemented together and are supposed to have 
been laid down along an old sea beach. Very coarse 
sandstone is called conglomerate, as shown in Fig. 15. 



28 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Limestones ' are made up largely of petrified shells and 
other fossils and were deposited either in the deep sea or 
in shallower water where conditions were favorable. Clay 
is hardened mud, and was formed in still bays and seas. 
If the clay is in thin layers it is called shale. Some form 
of stratified rock, either sandstone, limestone or clay, is 
found in most places on the surface of the earth. 

Igneous Rocks. Below these sedimentary rocks lie ig- 
neous or fire-formed rocks. The most common forms are 
granite, porphyry, diorite, seyenite and gabbro. Boulders 
of Oklahoma granite are shown in Fig. 16. Igneous rocks 
form the original crust of the earth and underlie every- 
thing else. If a person should drill anywhere on the sur- 
face of the earth, he would come to the granite or other 
igneous rocks, provided he went deep enough. In some 
places, usually in mountain ranges, these rocks are ex- 
posed on the surface, but in most regions they are cov- 
ered with many thousands of feet of stratified rocks. 

In order to understand the story written in the rocks 
of Oklahoma, it is necessary to study the formations ex- 
posed on the surface in all parts of the State. We must 
also go far back in the world's history, back to Cambrian 
times, to the times of the very first stratified rocks, the 
time of the first fossils. 

Oldest Rocks in Oklahoma. The oldest stratified rocks 
exposed on the surface in Oklahoma are found in the Ar- 
buckle and Wichita Mountains. These rocks were laid 
down many millions of years ago, just how long ago no one 
knows, when all this country was an open sea. In these 
regions there are a number of formations composed of 
limestone, sandstone and shale, lying one above the other. 
The very oldest stratified rock in the State is known as 




29 




30 



GEOLOGY 31 

the Reagan Sandstone. It lies directly on the granite, 
which is .exposed as high peaks near the center of the 
mountain ranges. It is of Cambrian age. Above the 
Reagan is a very heavy ledge of limestone, the Arbuckle 
limestone, 6,000 to 8,000 feet thick, one of the heaviest 
ledges of limestone in the world. The upper part of the 
Arbuckle is Ordovician in age. Then comes the Simpson 
sandstone, 2,000 feet thick, and the Viola limestone, 800 
feet thick, also of Ordovician age. Next is the Svlvan 
shale, then the Hunton limestone, which is of Silurian and 
Devonian age. A ledge of Hunton limestone standing on 
edge is shown in Fig. 17. Above the Hunton is the Wood- 
ford chert, probably of upper Devonian age. Figs. 5, 8, 
9, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 33, 83 and 86 show the rocks of these 
various formations. 

All these formations were laid down in regular succes- 
sion in the long-gone prehistoric seas. Sometimes the 
country was raised — the land stood above water — and 
then it was eroded or worn away by the action of the 
elements. For the most part, however, the deposition of 
sediments was continuous, from the beginning of the 
Cambrian to the close of the Devonian age. During these 
times many animals lived, but they were all low forms 
of life. There were none of the higher forms, such as 
reptiles, birds or mammals, which were introduced at 
later geological periods. There were trilobites, corals, 
crinoids (Fig. 13), shells and bryozoa or sea-mosses in 
great numbers. Their skeletons have been preserved in 
the various formations as fossils. In the Hunton forma- 
tion alone more than 200 different species have been 
found, the greater part of which are brachiopods, a kind 
of shell. There are many places in the Arbuckle Moun- 




Fig. 18. Three Views of White Mound Near Dougherty, Okla. 



32 



GEOLOGY 33 

tains where the fossils are as thick on the ground as acorns 
under an oak tree. Fig. 18 shows three views of "White 
Mound," a fossil-bearing locality of the Hunton limestone. 
Fig. 19 shows a party of geology students from the Uni- 
versity of Oklahoma, camped by the mountains, and Fig. 
18 shows the same party collecting fossils at White Mound. 
Origin of the Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains. Dur- 
ing the next geological period, the Carboniferous, there 




Fig. 19. Camp of Geology Students in the Arbuckle Mountains 

was a series of great upheavals in many parts of North 
America. Large areas of land were raised above the 
ocean. The Appalachian Mountains in the eastern part 
of the continent and the Wichita and Arbuckle Moun- 
tains of Oklahoma were elevated at that time. 

There are a great many places in Oklahoma where the 
rocks of these mountains may be studied, but one of the 
best localities, and the one most easily reached by many 
people in the State, is that part of the Arbuckle Moun- 



34 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



tains along the Washita River between Davis and Ard- 
more. At this place one may find many fossils and see 
some very fine examples of folding and faulting, show- 
ing the effects of the terrific strains to which the rocks 
have been subjected. Fig. 20 shows rocks which have 
been folded, and Fig. 21 rock standing on edge. There 
are a number of waterfalls, the most noted of which are 
Turner's Falls (Figs. 6 and 7) and Price's Falls (Fig. 



- 






s ; 


^^ 


S :■• ^ 


&L^k x -^'#% > >?^ 





Fig. 20. Folded Rocks 



22), besides the Washita Gorge (Fig. 8), the "Burning 
Mountain" and other places of interest. 

The geological structure of the mountains is shown in 
Figs. 23 and 24. Fig. 23 represents a section across the 
Arbuckle Mountains during Carboniferous times after the 
rocks had been deposited and the dome had been elevated 
above the ocean, but before it had been eroded. At that 
time the Arbuckle Mountains stood up as a great ovaL 
dome sixty miles long, twenty miles wide and two miles 



GEOLOGY 



35 



high above the surrounding- plains. As soon as it had 
been raised out of the water, the agents of erosion — rain, 
running water, wind, frost, etc. — began to cut away the 
rocks and to wash them down into the seas. The process 
continued for a long period of time. In fact, it is still in 
operation. The higher rocks which formed the top of 
the dome have all been worn away, exposing the rocks 
underneath, until at the present time nothing remains 




Fig. 21. Rocks on Edge 



but the eroded stump of the old mountain, as shown in 
Fig. 24. In passing from the Washita River to the granite 
peak 700 feet high known as the East Timbered Hills, 
which forms the core of the mountains, one walks over 
the upturned edges of more than two miles of stratified 
rocks, including limestones, shales and sandstones. In 
ascending 700 feet in altitude one descends more than 
10,000 feet geologically. 
Carboniferous Rooks. During Carboniferous times 



36 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



much of Oklahoma was under water and vast deposits of 
sedimentary rocks were laid down. The rocks of the Car- 
boniferous period are divided into the following series, the 
oldest being last named : 

Permian 

Pennsylvanian 

Mississippian 
The Mississippian. Rocks belonging to all of the three 




Fig. 22. Price's Falls, Arbuckle Mountains 



divisions of the Carboniferous are well exposed in Okla- 
homa. In the Ozark Mountains there is a formation 300 
feet thick, composed largely of limestone, known as the 
Boone Chert, which is of Mississippian age. This is the 
rock which contains the lead and zinc. On passing west 
these Mississippian rocks pass beneath the surface and are 
covered by rocks of the next younger age, the Pennsyl- 
vanian. 
The Pennsylvanian. With the exception of the forma- 



GEOLOGY 37 

tions exposed in the Ozark Mountain practically all 
the rocks in eastern Oklahoma are of Pennsylvanian 
age. They are the Coal Measures. At the time when 
these rocks were deposited there were vast areas of 
swamps and marshy lowlands in this region in which grew 
great number of ferns and trees, forming dense and heavy 




Fig. 23. Cioss-sections of the Areuckle Mountains 
Before Erosion 



T ^-M^. 




WaQhita R,vrr. 

Fig. 24. Cross-sections of the Arbuckle Mountains at 
the Present Time 

vegetation. This vegetation accumulated through the 
long years so that it finally formed thick deposits, which 
gradually changed into beds of coal. Many of the leaves, 
stems and trunks of these coal plants are now preserved 
in the rocks. If you examine a piece of coal you will 
probably find in it traces of leaves and stems of the coal 
plants. 

After a long period of accumulation the surface was 
submerged below the ocean and deposits of sand and 



38 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

mud were laid down, which, on hardening, formed sand- 
stone and shale. After a time the region was again ele- 
vated, other swamps and marshes were formed, vegetation 
grew once more and formed other accumulations which 
were changed into coal. This elevation and subsidence 
continued for a long time. Strata more than 15,000 feet 
thick were laid down in eastern Oklahoma. More than 
20 veins of coal were formed, about 10 of which are thick 
enough to be worked. One of these veins extends from 
near Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Lehigh, Oklahoma, a dis- 
tance of 150 miles. Another one comes to the surface 
along a line running from Pittsburg, Kansas, into Okla- 
homa and south past Chelsea, Claremore, Catoosa, Broken 
Arrow and Henry etta to the Canadian River. The Penn- 
sylvanian rocks dip west and pass beneath the next 
younger rocks, the Permian Redbeds. 

The Permian. During Permian times, after the coal 
beds had been laid down, the character of the deposits 
in Oklahoma changed. The Redbeds which occupy so 
much of western Oklahoma were probably deposited in 
shallow seas or in salt lakes something like the Red and 
Caspian seas today. The Redbeds consist of a great mass 
of red clay shales, of unknown thickness, which covers an 
area extending from Kansas across western Oklahoma and 
northwest Texas to New Mexico. Besides the red shales 
there are a few ledges of white gypsum, red sandstone 
and gray dolomite, which is a kind of limestone. It is 
the unequal weathering of the ledges of hard gypsums, 
sandstones and dolomites that makes up the Gypsum Hills, 
the Red Hills and other hills of western Oklahoma. 
Among the Redbeds there are beds of salty shale, and the 
water which runs across these salty beds issues as salt 



GEOLOGY 39 

springs. There are very few fossils of any kind in the 
Redbeds and little indication of coal, oil or gas. 

Triassic and Jurassic Times. At the close of the Per- 
mian times practically all of what is now Oklahoma was 
elevated above the ocean, and the greater part of it has 
never again been submerged. During Triassic and Jurassic 
times all the country except possibly a part of western 
Cimarron County stood out of the water. There are some 
deposits along the bluffs of Cimarron River near Kenton, 
in the extreme western part of the State, which may be 
of Triassic and Jurassic age. 

Cretaceous Rocks. During Cretaceous times parts of 
southern and western Oklahoma were again submerged 
beneath the ocean and deposits of shale, sandstone and 
limestone were laid down. Almost all the rocks in that 
part of the State which lies south of the Ouachita and 
Arbuckle mountains, extending along Red River from the 
Arkansas line west to Ardmore, are of Cretaceous age. 
These rocks contain petrified oyster shells, large coiled 
shells called ammonites, sharks' teeth and bones of reptiles 
and other animals which lived during Cretaceous times. 
All the fossils found in these rocks are very different 
from those in the Arbuckle Mountains or among the coal 
beds. They represent higher forms of life and show a 
great advance over the earlier forms. In several of the 
counties in western Oklahoma shell rock of Cretaceous 
age occurs on the hills, indicating that the Cretaceous 
seas extended over that country also. 

Tertiary Rocks. During Tertiary times Oklahoma stood 
out of the water and the surface was worn down about 
to its present level. It was at this time that the Rocky 



40 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Mountains were being eroded very rapidly and the ma- 
terial washed from the mountains — sand, pebbles; clay, 
silt and mud — was carried eastward by streams and spread 
out on the plains. This process continued for a long time 
until deposits several hundred feet thick were accumu- 
lated. This Tertiary deposit now makes up nearly all the 
surface rocks on the High Plains in western Texas, Okla- 
homa, Kansas, Nebraska and the Dakotas, as well as in 
eastern New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. 
The greater part of- the rocks exposed on the surface in 
Cimarron, Texas, Beaver, Harper and Ellis counties are of 
Tertiary age. It is believed that the sand in the sandhills 
along the north side of so many of the streams in central 
and western Oklahoma is derived from the same source. 
It must be remembered that the Tertiary is only a super- 
ficial blanket spread out over the rocks beneath, so that 
if a person will dig deep enough anywhere on the High 
Plains he will come to the underlying rocks, either Red- 
beds or Cretaceous rocks. These Tertiary rocks carry 
the good water found in wells and springs in western 
Oklahoma. 

The Tertiary is sometimes called the age of mammals. 
A great many large and strange beasts lived at this time, 
some of which have become extinct, while others have 
disappeared from North America and are now found only 
in Asia and Africa, In the rocks of the High Plains have 
been found bones of the three-toed horse, rhinoceros, prim- 
itive buffalo, pig, camel, hyena, saber-toothed tiger, arma- 
dillo, llama, tapir and mastodon, none of which are now 
native to this country. 

During Tertiary times there were a number of vol- 
canoes in what is now northeastern New Mexico and 



GEOLOGY 41 

southeastern Colorado. One of these volcanoes was only 
a few miles from the northwest corner of Cimarron County 
and the lava flowed east and now forms the cap of Black 
Mesa, which extends for four miles into Oklahoma. Ashes 
and dust from these volcanoes, carried by western winds, 
drifted east and settled to the surface. Beds of "vol- 
canic ash" are found among the Tertiary deposits in the 
western counties. 

Quaternary Rocks. Rocks of Quaternary age are rep- 
resented in Oklahoma by surface deposits, such as the 
alluvial bottom lands along the streams and the black soil 
on the high divides. There is no evidence of glacial de- 
posits in the State. The nearest point reached by the ice 
sheet during the Quaternary times was in the vicinity of 
Topeka and Manhattan, Kansas. The most common fossils 
in Quaternary rocks are skeletons of the mammoth and 
mastodon. Mastodon bones have been reported from 
nearly every county in the State. 

QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 

1. Name some kinds of rock found in Oklahoma. 

2. Define a fossil. How were fossils formed? 

3. What kinds of fossils are found in Oklahoma? 

4. Name ten geological periods. 

5. Define sedimentary rock. Stratified rock. 

6. Name the three chief kinds of sedimentary rock. 

7. How was each kind formed? 

8. Name the chief igneous rock. 

9. What and where is the oldest stratified rock in Oklahoma? 

10. Name the Arbuckle Mountain series. 

11. What fossils are found in these rocks? 

12. Describe the history of these mountains. 

13. Why are they not as high as they once were? 

14. What are the divisions of the Carboniferous period? 



42 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 

15. Where in Oklahoma are rocks of each division exposed? 

16. How was coal formed? 

17. What is the character of the Pennsylvanian rocks in Okla- 
homa? 

18. What is the character of the Permian rocks in the State? 

19. What minerals are found in the Permian rocks? 

20. What was the condition of Oklahoma during Triassic and 
Jurassic times? 

21. Where in the State are Cretaceous rocks found? 

22. What fossils are found in the Cretaceous rocks? 

23. Describe the Tertiary rocks. 

24. From what were they derived? 

25. What fossils are found in them? 

26. Where are the Quaternary rocks? 



CHAPTER IV. 
UNDERGROUND WATER. 

Disposal of Rainfall. Water which falls upon the sur- 
face of the earth in the form of rain, snow or hail is dis- 
posed of largely in one of three ways. Part of it evapo- 
rates, part soaks into the ground, and part runs off, 
forming streams. The evaporated water passes into the 
air in the form of vapor and may again become rainfall. 
The water which passes into the streams is soon carried 
away. The amount of water which soaks into the ground 
varies from place to place with the character of the soil, 
the slope of the surface and the dryness of the climate. In 
a loose, sandy soil, or a level country, a large amount of 
water will soak in. If the country is hilly or the surface 
material compact, a much smaller quantity will be ab- 
sorbed. 

Underground Water. Part of the water that enters the 
soil is caught up by the roots of plants and some comes 
to the surface again and is evaporated into the air. The 
greater part of it, however, sinks to lower levels in the 
ground. At some distance below the surface all the pores 
or open spaces in the rock and soil are completely filled 
with water. That is to say, the ground, deep down, is 
saturated with water, forming the zone of saturation. The 
top of this zone of saturation is known as the water table. 
In some places, as in a swamp or marsh, the water table 
is at the surface ; in other places it may be hundreds of 

43 



44 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

feet deep. It rises nearer the surface during rainy seasons 
and sinks during dry times. 

Movement of Underground Water. Underground water 
is everywhere slowly moving. From the uplands it moves 
to the valleys and in the valleys it moves downstream. In 
coarse sand and gravel, where the pores are large, the 
water moves faster than through clays or other fine- 
grained rocks. The rate of motion is never rapid, how- 
ever. Experiments conducted by the United States Geo- 
logical Survey along the valley of the Arkansas River 
show that the average rate of flow of underground water 
in the valley does not average more than 12 to 20 feet a 
day, or about a mile a year. 

Springs. Springs have their source in the under gro and 
water. ■ They usually issue at the point where* a porous 
bed comes to the surface. Most springs occur at the bot- 
tom of a ledge of sandstone, gravel or porous limestone 
and above a bed of fine-grained clay or shale. 

Springs are found in all parts of Oklahoma. In some 
of them the water is fresh and pure ; in others it contains 
gypsum or salt. In several parts of the State there are 
strong springs of sulphur water. 

Some of the finest springs in Oklahoma are in the Ozark 
Mountains, in the northeastern part of the State. In this 
region the water issues from below a ledge of limestone 
and just above a heavy, fine-grained shale. There are 
thousands of these springs along the creeks and on the 
mountain sides. Some of the most famous are at Tahlequah, 
Salem Springs, Wauhillau, Spavinaw, Bunch and Stilwell. 

In the Arbuckle Mountains there are a great many 
strong springs. The water comes usually from crevices 
in the limestone and coarse sandstone. The spring at old 



UNDERGROUND WATER 



45 



Fort Arbuckle is shown in Fig. 25. Such streams as Sul- 
phur Creek, Honey Creek, Falls Creek, Pennington Creek, 
Oil Creek, Mill Creek and Blue River, which flow all year, 
are fed by Arbuckle Mountain springs. In the Wichita 
Mountains there are a number of springs, some of which 
issue from crevices in granite rocks; others come from 
the limestone. 

In the sandstone countrv of eastern Oklahoma there 




Fig. 25. Spring at Old Fort Arbuckle — Wall Built in 1S52 



are occasional springs which issue from under sandstone 
ledges. There are many springs in the limestone country 
of the Flint Hills in the northern part of the State. One 
of the most noted is Big Spring, on Little Beaver Creek, 
near Hardy. 

There are not many springs in the fine-grained shales of 
the Redbeds in the central counties. Among the Gypsum 
Hills springs are very common, many of them being very 
strong. The water in this region usually contains gyp- 



46 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

sum and other mineral salts in such quantities that it is 
often unpleasant to drink. The purest spring water in 
western Oklahoma comes from springs in the sandhills 
and the high upland. These are usually called Tertiary 
springs because they come from a geological formation 
known as the Tertiary. Examples of Tertiary springs are 
the Cleo Springs, Elm Springs at Alva, Caddo Springs 
north of El Reno and several large springs near Moscow, 
Aline, Grand and Woodward. 




Fig. 26. Mineral Springs at Bromide 

Mineral Springs. Mineral springs are found in many 
parts of the State. The most famous are at Sulphur and 
Bromide (Fig. 26) in the Arbuckle Mountains. There are 
several sulphur springs in the Wichita Mountains, partic- 
ularly those near Granite and Rainy Mountain. Others 
occur in the Ouachita and Ozark mountains. Several 
health resorts are located near these springs. Piatt Na- 
tional Park is a government reservation which includes the 
mineral springs at Sulphur. 

Wells. A well is an excavation extending from the sur- 
face down to the zone of saturation. Well water is ground 



UNDERGROUND WATER 



47 



water obtained through an artificial opening in the 
ground. It flows out of the sand or gravel in which the 
well usually ends and fills the well to the level of the 
water table — in other words, as high as the top of the zone 
of saturation. 

During wet weather the water table is raised and the 
water stands higher in the well. During times of drought 
the water table is low- 
ered and the water in 
the well becomes low, 
or it may disappear 
entirely. Wells in the 
valley are usually 
shallow, because the 
water table is near the 
surface. Upland wells 
are often deep because 
the water table is deep. 
An ordinary well- 
drilling machine is 
shown in Fig. 27. 

There is no part of 
Oklahoma in w h i c h 
water is not obtained 
in wells. In the four 

mountain regions, however, but few wells have been sunk. 
There are two reasons for this. First, there are few people 
living among the mountains; and, second, there are 
plenty of springs to supply water for domestic use. In the 
Sandstone Hills region of eastern Oklahoma wells are 
common, and they usually find an abundant supply of 
pure water at less than 50 feet. In the Redbeds and 




Fig. 27. Well Drilling Machine 



48 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Gypsum Hills regions water is usually deeper, varying 
from 50 to 100 feet. The water often contains gypsum 
or salt. The best well water in Oklahoma is found among 
the sandhills and on the High Plains in the western part 
of the State. The wells are sometimes as much as 300 
feet deep. The water is abundant, cool and pure. Wind- 
mills are used to bring the water to the surface. 

Artesian Wells. There are three regions in Oklahoma 




Fig. 28. An Artesian Well at Lehigh 



in which artesian wells are found. An artesian well is 
one in which the water rises in the well, usually coming 
to the surface. Wells of this kind are found only where 
the rock strata lie in a peculiar manner. The water enters 
the ground at a level higher than the mouth of the well 
and usually passes underground for some distance. 

There is an area occupying several counties in north- 
eastern Oklahoma in which artesian wells are found 
which produce strong mineral water. Wells have been 



UNDERGROUND WATER 49 

put down at Miami, Afton, Welch, Bluejacket, Vinita, 
Pryor Creek, Wagoner, Chelsea, Claremore and Nowata. 
The water is used for medicinal purposes. At Claremore 
the water is very strong in mineral salts and is called 
Radium water. At Wagoner it is called Germicide. The 
source of supply of all this mineral water is in the Ozark 
Mountains to the east. Another artesian well region is 
at Sulphur in Murray County. The water is strong with 
sulphur gases, being very similar in taste to the water in 
the springs near by. The water enters the ground in the 
Arbuckle Mountains to the south. A third region is near 
Lehigh, Coal County. A well is shown in Fig. 28. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. How is rain water disposed of? 

2. What becomes of the water that soaks into the ground? 

3. Define Zone of Saturation. Water Table. 

4. What is the average rate of flow of underground water? 

5. Define spring. 

6. When does a spring usually issue? 

7. Where in Oklahoma are springs found? 

8. Discuss the springs of the Ozark Mountains; the Arbuckle 
Mountains; the Sandstone Country; the Gypsum Hills; the Ter- 
tiary Springs. 

9. Locate the salt springs of Oklahoma. 

10. Locate the mineral springs of Oklahoma. 

11. Define a well. 

12. Discuss wells in various parts of Oklahoma. 

13. Where are the artesian well regions in the State? 



CHAPTER V. 
DRAINAGE. 

Origin of Streams. Streams are fed partly by the rain 
water which runs off the surface and partly by water from 
springs. If the rainfall is slow and gentle and the soil 
is^ level and sandy, the greater part of the water will soak 
into the ground. This descends to the zone of saturation 
and finally issues in the form of springs. On the other 
hand, if the rainfall is violent and the surface rocky and 
steep, most of the water will run off and find its way into 
small streams. A number of small streams unite to form 
a creek, and a number of creeks form a river. Streams 
fed largely by springs usually flow all year, but those 
supplied by rainfall only carry no water in dry times. 
After very heavy rains streams become large and often 
overflow their banks. 

Chief Streams of Oklahoma. All the drainage of Okla- 
homa is into the Mississippi River. The two largest rivers 
in the State, the Arkansas and the Red, are tributaries of 
that river. All other large streams in Oklahoma are trib- 
utaries of either the Red or the Arkansas. The general 
course of the streams is southeast, following the slope of 
the Great Plains. The Arkansas River and its tributaries 
drain the northern part of the State, about two-thirds in 
all. Red River, which forms the southern boundary, re- 
ceives the drainage of the southern third of the State. 

None of the large rivers of Oklahoma rises in the State. 

50 



DRAINAGE 51 

The Arkansas and its largest tributary, the South Cana- 
dian, rise among the snow-covered granite peaks of the 
Rocky Mountains. All the other streams rise in surround- 
ing states. 

Character of Oklahoma Streams. Generally the streams 
in western Oklahoma are very different in appearance 
from those in the eastern counties. The western streams 
flow in broad, sand-choked channels with low sand banks. 
They are supplied largely from run-off after heavy rains. 
Often for months at a time there will be little water in 
the channel. The river may be dry from bank to bank, 
when suddenly, without warning, a wall of foaming 
water several feet high, carrying all sorts of debris, will 
rush downstream at great speed, filling the channel bank- 
full. For several days the water will be high, then it will 
gradually recede and the channel will be dry again. 

In eastern Oklahoma, on the other hand, the streams 
have deep channels, containing very little sand, with 
muddy or rocky banks. These streams are spring-fed and 
usually contain water all the year. During the dry season 
the water is low, but after heavy rains the channel is bank- 
full. 

Drainage Basins. The area drained by a river or a 
river system is known as its basin. There is a great dif- 
ference in the shape of the drainage basins of eastern and 
western Oklahoma. Those in the western part of the 
State are long, narrow and ribbon-like in outline, while 
those farther east are oval in outline. This condition is 
shown on the drainage map, Fig. 29. 

Arkansas River. The Arkansas River, the largest 
stream in Oklahoma, flows for 200 miles across the north- 
east corner of the State. This river rises in the Rocky 




52 



DRAINAGE 



53 



Mountains and flows in a broad, shallow channel south- 
east across the plains of Colorado and Kansas. Near Ar- 
kansas City, Kansas, a few miles north of the Oklahoma 
line, it strikes the Flint Hills, and from this point to Tulsa, 
near the southeast corner of Osage County, it flows in a 
crooked channel among the limestone hills. Fig. 30 shows 
the Arkansas in eastern Kay County. The distance is 
about 90 miles direct, but as traversed by the river is 
nearly twice as great. From Tulsa to Fort Smith, Ark., 




Fig. 30. Valley of the Arkansas River in Kay County 

where the river flows from the State, the Arkansas flows 
in a broad, fertile valley often bounded by sandstone hills. 
The bed of the Arkansas is filled with sand. In Colo- 
rado and western Kansas much of the water is taken out 
for irrigation, so that in northern Oklahoma there is 
often little water in the channel. The many tribu- 
taries in the State furnish water to keep the river flow- 
ing all the year. From the point near Muskogee, where 
the Verdigris and Grand rivers empty, the Arkansas is 
navigable for small boats part of the year. 



54 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

The chief streams which enter the Arkansas from the 
north are the Grand and Verdigris. The principal south- 
ern tributaries are the Poteau, Canadian, Cimarron and 
Salt Fork. Other smaller tributaries of the Arkansas are 
Lees, Sallisaw, Vian, Illinois and Beaver creeks, which 
enter from the north, and Sansbois, Polecat, Blackbear 
and Redrock creeks, from the south. 

Grand River. This stream, the largest northern tribu- 
tary of the Arkansas, is formed by two streams, Neosho 
and Spring rivers, which unite in the northern part of 
the State. The Neosho River drains southeastern Kansas 
and Spring River drains southwestern Missouri. Grand 
River flows through a fertile valley along the western 
edge of the Ozark Mountains and enters the Arkansas at 
Fort Gibson. It is a clear, swift stream flowing over a 
rocky or pebbly bed. It carries a large amount of water 
and is one of the finest rivers in the State. Spavinaw, 
Saline, Pryor and Big Cabin creeks are the largest tribu- 
taries. 

Verdigris River. Verdigris River rises in east-central 
Kansas and flows south. It crosses Nowata, Rogers and 
Wagoner counties before entering the Arkansas near the 
mouth of the Grand. The river flows through a broad 
valley, much of which is swamp land, in a crooked chan- 
nel with steep mud banks. The chief tributaries are 
Caney, Bird, Dog and Big creeks. 

Poteau River. The Poteau is the only large stream in 
Oklahoma that flows north. It takes its rise among the 
high sandstone hills of the Ouachita Mountains in south- 
western Arkansas, flows northwest and enters Oklahoma 
in southeastern Le Flore County. The river follows a tor- 
tuous course, flowing back and forth among the sand- 



DRAINAGE 55 

stone bluffs, and empties into the Arkansas River at Fort 
Smith. The channel is deep, with steep rock and mud 
banks; the valley is sometimes broad and sometimes nar- 
row. Several veins of coal cross the valley and the region 
is destined to become, in time, a wealthy manufacturing 
section. Brazil Creek and Black Fork are the chief tribu- 
taries. 

South Canadian River. The South Canadian, the largest 
tributary of the Arkansas, rises in New Mexico. It crosses 
the Panhandle of Texas before entering Oklahoma, and 
then flows for 350 miles and joins the Arkansas 40 miles 
above Fort Smith. In the western part of the State the 
river swings back and forth in a series of ox-bow bends 
and flows in a canyon-like valley about 200 feet deep. In 
Dewey and Custer counties it flows among the Gypsum 
Hills. The drainage basin in Oklahoma is narrow, not 
averaging more than 20 miles wide, while in places it is 
less than 10 miles. The channel is sand-choked and aver- 
ages half a mile in width, the banks being low and sandy. 
The channel is constantly shifting, and bends and cut- 
offs are common. It is the most uncertain and treacherous 
of all Oklahoma streams. Sudden and rapid rises are 
common. Fig. 31 shows a team crossing the South Cana- 
dian in high water. The largest tributary is the North 
Canadian, which in turn receives Deep Fork. The river 
has few large tributaries in Oklahoma, the largest being 
Gaines Creek, Little River and Deer Creek. 

North Canadian River. The North Canadian is formed 
by Wolf Creek and Beaver Creek, which unite at Fort Sup- 
ply, in Woodward County. Wolf Creek rises in the north- 
ern part of the Panhandle of Texas and flows northeast. 
Beaver Creek rises among the volcanic peaks in north- 



56 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

eastern New Mexico. It flows east across Cimarron, Texas, 
Beaver and Harper counties before joining Wolf Creek. 
Its chief tributaries are Coldwater, Palo Duro, Clear and 
Kiowa creeks. The North Canadian flows parallel to the 
South Canadian across Oklahoma. The width of the 
drainage basin does not exceed 20 miles and in several 
places the distance from the bed of the North Canadian 
across the divide north of the stream to the water of the 
Cimarron is not more than a mile. Its bed averages 200 




Fig. 31. A Team Crossing the Canadian River in Flood 

feet higher than the valley of the Cimarron. There is a 
saying in western Oklahoma, "the North Canadian flows 
on a ridge." In its upper course the bed of the stream 
is filled with sand and the banks are low, but from Okla- 
homa City eastward the amount of sand decreases and the 
banks are steep and muddy. The water is purer than that 
of most streams in the State, partly because it is fed 
largely by springs from the sandhills, and partly because 
no salt springs drain into this stream. North Canadian 
has few tributaries. Deep Fork is the largest. Others of 
some importance are Wewoka, Persimmon and Indian 



DRAINAGE 57 

creeks. Deep Fork rises in Oklahoma County and flows 
east across Lincoln, Creek and Okmulgee counties. It 
is a narrow stream flowing in a crooked channel. The 
bottom lands along this stream are subject to frequent 
overflow. 

Cimarron River. The Cimarron rises among the vol- 
canic peaks of northern New Mexico and flows east, 
crossing parts of Oklahoma, Colorado and Kansas before 
finally entering Oklahoma at the Salt Plain on the Woods- 
Harper county line. For 60 miles or more it flows in a 
broad canyon among the Gypsum Hills, then passes out 
onto the Redbeds Plains and flows east and enters the 
Arkansas River at the southeastern corner of Pawnee 
County. The Cimarron drainage basin is broader and 
more regular in outline than that of any other stream in 
western Oklahoma, averaging more than 40 miles wide. 
The bed is broad and sandy, with low sand banks, as 
shown in Fig. 32. The flow of water is intermittent, and 
the stream is subject to sudden and rapid rises, rendering 
it often unsafe to ford. Below the Salt Plains the water 
contains a large amount of salt, rendering it unfit to use. 
The chief tributaries are Buffalo, Eaglechief, Salt, Tur- 
key, Kingfisher, Cottonwood, Skeleton and Stillwater 
creeks. 

S'ait Pork River. The Salt Fork of the Arkansas, an- 
other typical stream of the plains, rises in southern Kan- 
sas and flows east across Woods, Alfalfa, Grant and Kay 
counties, a distance of 115 miles, before entering the Ar- 
kansas. The banks are low and sandy and the channel is 
filled with sand. The stream carries pure water as far as 
the Salt Plains in Alfalfa County, but below that point 
the water is salty. The valley of the stream is very fer- 



58 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

tile. The principal streams which empty into Salt Fork 
are Medicine, Mule, Sand, Chikaskia, Deer, Cottonwood 
and Bois d'Arc creeks. 

Washita River. The Washita is the only stream in 
western Oklahoma which has steep mud banks and little 
sand in its channel. This is accounted for by the fact 
that the "Washita flows across the Redbeds for almost its 
entire course. Rising in the Panhandle of Texas, it flows 




Fig. 32. Cimarron Ri^er, Showing the Low, Sandy Banks. 

east into Oklahoma and across Roger Mills, Custer, Wash- 
ita, Caddo, Grady, Garvin, Murray, Carter, Johnson and 
between Marshall and Bryan counties before emptying 
into Red River. In the western part of the State the 
river cuts its way through the Gypsum Hills. Then it 
flows out on the Redbeds Plains as far as the Arbuckle 
Mountains. It crosses these mountains in a deep gorge 
which it has cut through limestone rocks. (Fig. 33.) 
South of the Arbuckles it crosses the Cretaceous forma- 



DRAINAGE 59 

tions. The valley of the Washita is one of the most fer- 
tile parts of Oklahoma. Its chief tributaries are Quarter- 
master, Cavalry, Rainy Mountain, Cobb, Sugar, Little 
Washita, Rush, Wild Horse, Caddo, Mill and Pennington 
creeks. 

Red River. Red River forms the southern boundary of 
Oklahoma. This river resembles the Cimarron and South 
Canadian in having a broad and sandy channel and an 
intermittent flow. The name of the river is derived from 







" -'^Lm • >'** .&*&°'''"n 


3£** 


"* : ;j|gi! 


■-■■:■:.-. 







Fig. 33. Limestone in the Washita Gorge 

the color of the water, and the red color comes from the 
Redbeds across which the river flows. The river rises on 
the High Plains, or Llano Estacado, of northern Texas. In 
its upper course it flows for nearly 100 miles in Palo Duro 
Canyon, which is in places 1,000 feet deep — the deepest 
gash cut by stream erosion anywhere on the Plains. 

Red River has a number of tributaries in southern Okla- 
homa. The Washita has already been described. Little 
River (Fig. 34) and Kiamitia (Pig. 33) drain the Ouachita 
Mountains. Boggy Creek drains the southern part of the 
Sandstone Hills region and the country between the 



60 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Ouachitas and the Arbuckles. Blue Kiver drains the east- 
ern part of the Arbuckles. Mud and Beaver creeks drain 
the southern part of the Redbeds Plains, which lies be- 
tween the Arbuckles and the Wichitas. Cache Creek 
drains the eastern part of the Wichitas and the surround- 
ing plain. North Fork of Red River rises in the Pan- 
handle of Texas and flows southeast. Its chief tributaries 
are Elm Fork, Elk and Otter creeks. Salt Fork empties 
inta South Fork. North, South, Salt and Elm Forks 




Fig. 34. View on Little River, Eastern Oklahoma 

of Red River are typical streams of the Plains, with 
broad, sandy channels and low banks. The other streams 
named have steep mud or rock banks and carry little sand. 
Lakes. Oklahoma has no large lakes. Lakes are char- 
acteristic of an ill-drained country, and Oklahoma is 
everywhere well-drained. Along the larger streams, such 
as Arkansas, Red and Canadian rivers, there are a few 
long and narrow lakes that have been formed by cut-off 
bends. On the High Plains there are numerous broad, 
shallow basins which are sometimes filled with water, but 
these are seldom more than 100 yards in diameter. Arti- 



, T ^7' r ' 




Fig. 35. Ferry Boat on Kiamitia River 




Fig. 36. An Artificial Lake Near Newkirk 



CI 



62 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

ficial reservoirs, sometimes known as "tanks" are com- 
mon in grazing regions. Fig. 36 shows an artificial lake 
near Newkirk. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. How are streams fed? 

2. Into what stream does all the drainage of Oklahoma finally 
flow? 

3. Name the two largest rivers in the State. 

4. Where do the large rivers of Oklahoma rise? 

5. What difference is there between the streams in eastern 
and western Oklahoma? 

6. Study the drainage map. Notice the soured and direction 
of the various rivers. 

7. Trace the divide between the Arkansas and Red River. 

8. Compare the shape of the drainage basin of North Canadian 
and Grand River. 

9. Describe the Arkansas River, noting source, direction of 
flow, chief tributaries, counties crossed or bordered, and chief 
cities. 

10. Describe likewise the Grand; Verdigris; Poteau; South 
Canadian; North Canadian; Cimarron; Salt Fork. 

11. Describe Red River; Washita. 

12. Why has Oklahoma no large lakes? 



CHAPTER VI. 
WEATHER AND CLIMATE. 

Weather refers to the condition of the air in regard to 
rain, clouds, wind and heat. Climate is the sum total of 
the weather for a long period of time. The weather often 
changes suddenly, but climate changes so slowly that we 
can rarely observe any variation in it. 

Weather. The chief factors which go to make up the 
weather in any particular region are temperature, winds, 
humidity, sunshine and cloudiness and precipitation. If we 
know these we can determine what the weather will most 
likely be. These terms will now be explained. 

Temperature. Temperature is the amount of heat that 
any region receives, and is a very important thing to con- 
sider, for upon it depends largely the kind of animal and 
plant life in any place. Weather may be hot, cool or 
cold. The average temperature for a day or year is called 
the mean temperature. The difference between the high- 
est, or maximum, and lowest, or minimum, is called the 
range of temperature. 

Air. Air is a mixture of several gases. The most im- 
portant are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water 
vapor. The great body of air which surrounds the earth 
is called the atmosphere. Like other substances, air has 
weight. At the surface of the ocean, where the pressure 
is greatest, 13 1-3 cubic feet of air weigh a pound and 
the weight of the air on every square inch of surface is 

63 



64 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

about 15 pounds. As we ascend from sea level the density 
of the air constantly decreases and thus the air becomes 
lighter. When air is heated it rises. Other air rushes 
in to supply its place, -forming winds. You have noticed 
that when a strawstack or brush pile was burned on a 
still day the heated air ascended, carrying with it a col- 
umn of smoke. If you will walk around the fire you will 
find that the air is moving inward toward it from all 
directions. The ascending column of air and the cur- 
rents flowing into it from all directions is a good illus- 
tration of what is happening at the point of low pressure 
in one of the great cyclonic storms which pass over Okla- 
homa. 

Wind. Wind, then, is air moving along the surface 
of the earth, and it is caused by the unequal heating of 
the air in different places. The rate at which the air 
moves varies greatly. A gentle breeze which hardly 
moves the leaves moves about two miles an hour. A 
prairie wind may move 15 to 20 miles an hour, and a 
destructive storm as much as 80 or 100 miles an hour. 

Humidity. By the term humidity we mean the amount 
of water vapor in the air. If the air contains little mois- 
ture the humidity is low. If much moisture is present the 
humidity is high. When air contains as much water vapor 
as it will hold it is said to be saturated. The warmer the 
air the more water vapor it will hold. If saturated air is 
cooled, the water vapor is condensed in small drops, 
forming clouds, fog or dew. Clouds form a curtain in the 
sky and prevent the direct rays of the sun from reaching 
the earth. In some countries clouds are almost always 
present, but in Oklahoma about 250 days in the year are 



WEATHER AND CLIMATE 65 

clear. There are more clear days in the western part of 
the State than in the eastern. 

Precipitation. The term precipitation is used to in- 
clude all the moisture that falls on the surface of the 
earth. In one climate by far the greater part of the 
precipitation is in the form of rain; in another it may 
be snow. In Oklahoma the greater part is in the form 
of rain. During the summer months hail sometimes falls. 
In the winter the drops of water are often frozen as they 
pass through the air and form sleet. When the moisture 
in the air is condensed at a temperature below freezing 
point frost or snow results. The greatest amount of rain 
in any one month falls in May. 

Weather Bureau. One of the departments of the United 
States Government is the Weather Bureau. Under the 
direction of this bureau stations have been established 
at every large city and at many other places for the pur- 
pose of observing and recording weather conditions. At 
these various stations observations are made twice a day 
— at eight o'clock, morning and evening, Washington 
time. The observer notes the direction of the wind, the 
clearness of the sky, the temperature, air pressure and 
the amount of precipitation that has fallen in the last 
twelve hours. These observations are sent by telegraph 
to Washington and other large centers, and a map is pre- 
pared showing the weather conditions in all parts of the 
country. By studying the map the officers are able to 
predict the weather from twenty-four to thirty-six hours 
in advance. About four-fifths of the predictions are cor- 
rect. The station for Oklahoma is at Oklahoma City. 
Daily weather maps may be obtained free by people of 




66 



WEATHER AND CLIMATE 67 

Oklahoma by sending to the Director of the Weather 
Bureau at Oklahoma City. 

Cyclones. Oklahoma weather is said to be cyclonic. A 
cyclone is a disk of air, hundreds of miles in diameter, 
covering several states, and about two miles thick, ly- 
ing upon the surface of the earth. At the center of this 
area is a center of low pressure, where the heated air is 
constantly rising. Cooler air from areas of high pressure 
without the cyclonic area flows in along the ground, 
ascends at the center and flows upward with a spiral 
twist in the opposite direction from the hands of a clock. 

In addition to this circular motion the cyclone as a 
whole is moving across the country at the rate of 20 to 
30 miles per hour. The direction is usually eastward. 
These cyclones pass over Oklahoma usually at intervals 
of from three to seven days. During the passage of a 
cyclone over Oklahoma the weather usually changes sev- 
eral times. As the air in the area of low pressure ascends 
it is cooled, the moisture is condensed and clouds are 
formed. Rain begins to fall. Thunder storms and hail 
are frequently produced. After the storm center or low 
pressure area has passed, the wind changes to the north, 
the clouds disappear and the sky is clear and the weather 
cooler for several days. Fig. 37 shows the progress of a 
cyclone across Oklahoma. 

Most of the Oklahoma storms originate either in the 
northwestern part of the United States and pass south- 
east, or in the New Mexico region and pass northeast. 
The former are the ' ' northers " or " blizzards ' ' in winter, 
and the latter cause most of our thunder storms and 
tornadoes. After crossing our State the storms pass east- 
ward across the Mississippi Valley; and many of them 



68 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



swing to the northeast, cross the Great Lakes and turn 
down the St. Lawrence Valley. Most storms are bene- 
ficial, because they bring rain, without which vegetation 
could not exist. Only occasionally is the State visited 
with destructive storms, such as a tornado, hailstorm or 
cloudburst. 

Climate. Climate is the sum of the weather for a num- 
ber of years. The principal causes' which influence cli- 



■irmary 











II 




ill II 1 








J 1 II 




III II 1 jl 








1 1 ill 1 I I ' 1 




J 




tt 1 




1 1 








1 il 1 1 III IJJ 1 I|m 




iii 1 1 1 1 ii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ii 1 1 1 1 1 M ii 1 1 ii 1 1 1 1 1 ii 1 1 ii i it in ii in it til 1 1 1 1 1 1 ii ii i ii i ii i 





Jar, 

February 

March 

April 

Mau 
June 
duly 
AuyuSt 
Oe/'remier 
October 
/Voirember 
December 
Annua/ 



Chan Shon\nj Areraye A'fonthly Temperatures in Oklahoma 

Fig. 38. Chart Showing the Monthly Temperature 
of Oklahoma 



mate are: Latitude, or distance from the equator; alti- 
tude, or distance above sea level; direction of the pre- 
vailing winds; distance from large bodies of water; hu- 
midity, or amount of moisture in the air; ocean currents; 
and mountains. 

Countries which are located near the equator have a 
warm or torrid climate, but near the poles the climate 
is frigid. Oklahoma is situated midway between the 
equator and the poles and has a temperate climate. 



WEATHER AND CLIMATE 



69 



Temperature. Temperature changes with altitude 
about one degree for every 65 feet. The tops of high 
mountains are always cold, even those near the equator. 
Western Oklahoma is nearly 5,000 feet above sea level 
and the climate is much cooler than in the eastern part 
of the State, where the altitude is less than 1,000 feet. 
Fig. 38 shows the monthly temperature of Oklahoma. 

Winds. Winds bring high or low temperature and 
moisture and consequently affect climate. The cold north 




:IE=^ "WxH 



OKLAHOMA 



"VS 




Fig. 39. Chart Showing the Mean Annual 
Precipitation in Oklahoma 



winds make the winter climate of Oklahoma colder than 
it would otherwise be. The hot southwest winds in sum- 
mer bring excessive heat from the heated plains. Large 
bodies of water temper the climate and make changes 
less frequent. The nearest large body of water to Okla- 
homa is the Gulf of Mexico, about three hundred miles 
distant. The influence of the Gulf is felt especially in the 
southern and eastern parts of the State, where the rain- 
fall is heavy and the temperature less changeable than 
further north and west. 



70 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Humidity. The humidity of Oklahoma decreases from 
east to west. The greater part of the State is in what is 
known as the humid region of the United States. The 
extreme western counties only are in the arid region. The 
climate in the interior of continents is spoken of as a 
continental climate. It is subject to frequent changes. 
Near the oceans, where changes are less frequent, the 
climate is known as an oceanic climate. The climate of 



UanuafL 

r e br 



iruary 

March 
Afrit 
A/ ay 
</une 

(.lulu 

AutjvSt 

Seblember 

October 

Novemb'tr 

Dec ember 

/nclits J - 

Cfiart o/><)#/y Areraye Monthly Precipitation in Oklahoma 

Fig. 40. Chart Showing the Average Monthly 

Rainfall in Oklahoma 



Oklahoma is continental. The almost constant breezes 
purify the air and make it very healthful. 

Rainfall. The rainfall of Oklahoma varies from place 
to place, from year to year, and from season to season. 
The chart shown in Fig. 39 shows the mean annual rain- 
fall for the past seventeen years. It will be seen that 
the rainfall steadily decreases from east to west. Snow 
rarely falls in southeastern Oklahoma, but in the north- 



WEATHER AND CLIMATE 71 

ern part of the State it sometimes occurs. Fig. 40 shows 
the average monthly rainfall in Oklahoma. 

The following table shows the mean annual rainfall for 
the State by months for the past seventeen years : 

nj x . Eastern Division. t , 

Station. Inches. 

Durant 40.41 

Tahlequah 43.91 

Muskogee 37.28 

Tulsa 34.65 

Holdenville 37.95 

Webber Falls 38.74 

Fairland 43.04 

«, ,. Central Division. t . 

Station. Inches. 

Ardmore 37.13 

Chickasha 30.76 

Guthrie 31.50 

Kingfisher 29.50 

Newkirk 32.80 

Oklahoma 30.96 

Pawhuska 41.03 

Shawnee 33.08 

„, j_. Western Division. t . 

Station. Inches. 

Arapaho 28.07 

Alva 28.58 

Fort Sill 31.59 

Kenton 15.74 

Mangum 26.23 

Temple 29.27 

Weatherford 26.39 



72 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Rainfall by Months. 

Month. Inches. Month. Inches. 

January 1.26 July 3.56 

February 1.24 August 2.97 

March 2.41 September 3.04 

April 3.07 October 2.43 

May 5.31 November 1.83 

June 3.82 December 1.47 

These figures show that the greater part of the rain- 
fall occurs during the spring and summer months, i. e., 
during the growing season. 

Oklahoma Climate. Oklahoma has a bright and sunny 
climate and sufficient rainfall for vegetation, but is not so 
humid as to be unhealthful. The amount of sunshine 
and the dry cool air are all favorable to health. As a re- 
sult, Oklahoma is a healthful State. Its low death rate 
is due largely to its climate. 



QUESTIONS AND EXEEC1SES 

1. What is weather? 

2. What is climate? 

3. What are the chief factors which go to make up weather? 

4. What is temperature? With what instrument is it measured? 

5. What do you understand by maximum, minimum, and mean 
temperatures? 

6. What is wind? 

7. What is meant by humidity? 

8. What is meant by precipitation? 

9. Study the map on page 69, and find out what the precipita- 
tion of your special locality is. 



WEATHER AND CLIMATE 73 

10. Study the same map and try to tell why western Oklahoma 
gets less rainfall than eastern Oklahoma. 

11. What is low pressure? High pressure? 

12. Study Figure 37. Where is the center of low pressure? In 
what direction is the wind flowing east of this center? West? 
South? Where is the area of clouds? The area of clear weather? 
Where do the storms occur? . 

13. What is cyclonic weather? A cyclone? 

14. What are some characteristics of a continental climate 
compared with an oceanic? 



CHAPTER VII. 

VEGETATION AND AOTMAL LIFE. 

Flora and Fauna. The flora of a region includes all 
the plants, and the fauna all the animals found there. 
The plant life of a region is more directly dependent up- 
on climatic conditions than the animal life, for plants 




Fig. 41. Up-land Timber in Eastern Oklahoma 



cannot move from one place to another as animals can. 
The chief factors affecting the flora of a country are : the 
amount and the distribution of rainfall ; the temperature ; 
and the character of the soil. The distribution of animal 
life depends chiefly upon the distribution of plants and 
the abundance of other animals. 

74 



VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 



75 



Flora of Oklahoma. Eastern Oklahoma lies in the tim- 
bered region of the United States; western Oklahoma is 
in the prairie region. The line of separation of forest 
and prairie corresponds roughly to the line which sep- 
arates the Sandstone Hills from the Redbeds Plains ; and 
lies east of the main line of the Santa Fe railroad. No 
hard and fast lines can be drawn, however, for there are 




Fig. 42. A Saw Mill in Eastern Oklahoma 



considerable areas of prairie east of this line, and some 
forest areas are found west. 

Trees. The trees of eastern Oklahoma are the ordinary 
forest species found in the Mississippi valley. On the 
hills the principal trees are several species of oak and 
hickory shown in Fig. 41, besides ash, persimmon, sassa- 
fras, pine and cedar. A saw mill is shown in Fig. 42. 
Along the valleys, cottonwood, elm, maple, sycamore, 
willow, hackberry, walnut, bois d'arc, pecan and sweet 
gum, are most common. Several species of wild plum 



76 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

and wild cherry, mulberry, honey locust, haw, crabapple 
and wild grape are found. Fig. 43 shows piles of cross 
ties and lumber at a station. Fig. 44 shows a rail fence 
and deadened timber in a clearing in eastern Oklahoma. 
In the western half of the State trees are found usual- 
ly only along the streams or among the sand hills. The 
level uplands are grass-covered. Cottonwood, elm, hack- 
berry, chinaberry, walnut and willow are the prin- 



n * "* *"^ K ,;,* -,„■ 








-- 




.^<^< 




:■ ' .*- i:. >' 


- 



Fig. 43. Piles of Crossties and Lumber at Bennington 

cipal trees along the streams. Fig. 45 is a dwarfed elm. 
Fig. 46 shows cottonwood and elm trees. On the flat 
prairies and along some of the streams in the western 
counties is found the thorny mesquite. Black jack, post 
oak, hackberry and hickory grow in the sand hills. On 
the High Plains in the extreme western part of the State 
there are very few trees even along the streams, but even 
here an occasional low elm or dwarf cottonwood or willow 
may be found. 



VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 



77 



Grasses. There are a great many species of native 
grasses in Oklahoma. In the eastern and central parts 
of the State the grasses grow tall. The chief grass 
in this region is commonly known as "bine stem." On 
the High Plains the most common form is called "buffalo 
grass." Buffalo grass grows only two or three inches 
high; but it stands very thick and forms a heavy sod 
carpet on the ground. Western Oklahoma is sometimes 





Fig. 44. Rail Fence and Deadened Timber 



known as the "short grass country." The principal cul- 
tivated grasses are alfalfa and Bermuda grass. Clover, 
orchard grass and blue grass are cultivated in lawns, and 
timothy is grown in the eastern counties. In the sandy 
country on the High Plains is found the so-called sage 
brush and the spiney yucca. Several species of cactus, 
also, grow on the plains. 

Mistletoe. The mistletoe grows everywhere in Okla- 
homa except in the northwestern part of the State. It is 



78 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



a parasite and flourishes best on elm trees. The branches 
are short and stubby, the leaves dark green and in win- 
ter the berries are white. The beautiful dark green clus- 
ters with white berries form handsome decorations. 
Great quantities of mistletoe are every year shipped to 
northern markets at Christmas time. The mistletoe is 
usually accepted as the state flower of Oklahoma. 

Fauna of Oklahoma. Oklahoma contains a very diverse 




Fig. 45. A Dwarf Elm on the High Plains 



fauna. The borderland of forest and prairie has helped 
to promote animal migration. Many of the largest and 
most useful of the wild animals have been destroyed by 
man so that now only the smaller and less important re- 
main. 

Wild Animals. Buffalo once roamed in countless num- 
bers over our plains, but they have practically all been 
killed. At the present time three small herds are kept in 



VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 



79 



captivity, one herd at Pawnee, one at Bliss, and one in 
the Forest Reserve in the Wichita Mountains, Fig. 47. 

Elk were once plentiful but they have long since dis- 
appeared. A few years ago there were still several droves 
of antelope on the High Plains but there are none now. 
Deer are found occasionally in the timbered country in 
eastern Oklahoma. Bears and panthers which were once 
common have about all disappeared. Gray wolves are 




Fig. 46. Cottonwood and Elm Timber Along a Stream — 
Western Oklahoma 



occasionally found and coyotes are still common in cer- 
tain localities in the central and in the western part of 
the State. 

Jack rabbits and ground squirrels are common on the 
prairies, and cotton-tail rabbits, red squirrels and gray 
squirrels in the timber. Badgers, minks, and otters 
are occasionally found, but the beavers have all been de- 
stroyed. Muskrats live along the streams. Gophers are 
common and many colonies of prairie dogs are yet found 



80 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

in the western part of the State. Wild cats, raccoons, 
opossums, and skunks are still to be seen in many regions. 
Birds. There is a great variety of birds in Oklahoma. 
Among the flesh-eating birds are several species of owls, 
of which the barred owl, screech owl, monkey-faced owl, 
and prairie-dog owl are most common. A number of spe- 
cies of hawks, also, abound. The Mississippi kite is com- 
mon in the western counties. Both the bald eagle and the 




Fig. 47. Buffalo Herd in the Forest Reserve, 
Wichita Mountains 

Photograph by Dedrick, Talogu, Okla. 

golden eagle are found, and the turkey buzzard is com- 
mon everywhere. Game birds are common. Quails are 
abundant, and prairie chickens and wild turkeys are still 
found in sparsely-settled localities. Ducks, geese, brants, 
cranes, snipe, plover, mud hens, curlew, and other migra- 
tory wildfowl are common at certain seasons of the year. 
Crows are found in the timbered country. There are 
many kinds of song birds both in the timber and on the 



VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 81 

prairie, the most common of which are various species 
of sparrows, thrushes, orioles, blackbirds, doves, larks, 
warblers, fly catchers, and robins. 

Snakes and Lizards. There are but few kinds of poi- 
sonous snakes in Oklahoma; the rattle snake, the copper- 
head and the water moccasin, and none of these is com- 
mon. There are four forms of the rattlesnake in the 
State, the most common of which are known as the prairie 
rattler, the timber rattler, and the diamond rattler. All 
snakes except the poisonous ones are useful to man and 
should not be killed. Among these are the bull snake, 
spreading adder, water snake, black snake, king snake, 
blue racer, coach whip, garter snake, and house snake. 
Frogs and toads which are common are useful also. 
There are several species of small lizards, the largest of 
which is sometimes known as the "mountain boomer." 
It is really a chameleon and has the power of changing 
the color of its skin. There are two peculiar kinds of 
lizard in Oklahoma which bear the name of another an- 
imal. The "horned toad" is not a toad at all, but a 
lizard. It is much more common further west than in 
Oklahoma. The "joint snake" is a lizard also. Its tail, 
which is longer than the rest of its body, is composed 
of sutures which may be pulled apart. The animal may 
lose all its tail and still live. 

Turtles. There are several varieties of turtles, both on 
land and in water. The most common land form is the 
box tortoise, sometimes known as the terrapin. The two 
most common turtles living in water are the soft-shelled 
and the hard-shelled turtle. Both kinds are used for 
food. 

Do Not Kill Snakes. None of these small forms of an- 



82 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

imals, except the poisonous snakes, are harmful to man. 
Most of them are very useful* They destroy countless 
numbers of harmful insects and small animals such as 
mice and rats. Only ignorant or cruel people now kill 
snakes, toads, lizards or turtles. 

Fishes. The streams of Oklahoma abound with fish. 
Bass, perch, catfish, sunfish, trout and buffalo are the 
most abundant native species. German carp and crappie 
have been introduced into many streams and ponds. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Define flora; fauna. 

2. What factors affect the fauna of a country? The flora? 

3. What part of Oklahoma is timbered? 

4. Name the trees growing on the upland in eastern Oklahoma. 

5. Name the principal species found in the valleys. 

6. Where are the trees found in western Oklahoma? 

7. Name t.ke chief species. 

8. What are the principal wild grasses? The cultivated 
grasses? 

9. Name some plants found* on the High Plains. 

10. Describe the mistletoe. 

11. Name some wild animals that are nearly extinct. 

12. What are the most common wild animals in the State? 

13. Prepare a list of all the birds you can think of that live in 
Oklahoma. 

14. What are the poisonous snakes? 

15. Name the non-poisonous snakes. 

16. To what form of life do the horned toad and joint snake 
belong? 

17. Why should non-poisonous snakes, toads, turtles and lizards 
not be killed? 

18. Name the principal kinds of fish found in Oklahoma. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES. 

Original Owners of Oklahoma, By the provisions of 
the Louisiana purchase of 1803, all of Oklahoma except 
that part which lies west of the one hundredth meridian, 
came into the possession of the United States. The 
Osage Indians claimed all the land north of the South 
Canadian River, and the Quapaws all the land south of 
that stream. In 1817 both these tribes ceded their land 
to the general government. 

Homes of the Five Civilized Tribes. At this time there 
were living in the southeastern part of the United States 
several Indian tribes — among others the Cherokees, 
Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws and Chickasaws. The 
Cherokees lived in the country covered by the corners of 
the states North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Ala- 
bama, Tennessee and Virginia. The Creeks, who knew 
themselves as the Muskogees, lived in western Georgia 
and Alabama. The Seminoles, a branch of the Musko- 
gees, lived in southern Georgia and Florida. The Choc- 
taws and Chickasaws lived in western Alabama and Mis- 
sissippi. 

As these southern states were settled these tribes re- 
tired before the encroachments of the white man, until 
finally they were confined to small reservations. At vari- 
ous times they sold their homes to the government and 
received in return certain lands in what is now Okla- 

83 



84 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

lioma. By the terms of the treaties the land was to be- 
long to the Indians forever. 

Migration of the Five Civilized Tribes. Before the 
year 1820 the Cherokees had sold part of their land in 
North Carolina to the general government and received 
cession of land north of the Arkansas River in what is 
now northeastern Oklahoma. This included not only the 
old Cherokee Nation, but also the Osage, Pawnee, Ponca, 
Otoe and Tonkawa reservations and the so-called Chero- 
kee Outlet or "The Strip." 

In 1820 the Choctaw Indians gave to the government 
certain lands in Mississippi and received in lieu thereof 
lands in the Indian Territory, lying between the Cana- 
dian and Red rivers ; and in 1832 the Chickasaws, a band 
of the Choctaws, came west and settled on the same land. 

In 1825 the Creek Indians ceded to the United States 
their lands in Georgia and received, acre for acre, land 
lying, north of South Canadian River extending north to 
the Cherokee possessions. In 1833 the Seminoles re- 
ceived a grant of land along the southern part of the 
Creek country, including everything between the North 
and South Canadian rivers, extending from a point near 
where Shawnee is now located, westward to the Texas 
line. 

At the opening of the Civil war, the Five Civilized 
Tribes — the Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, and 
Chickasaws — owned all that is now Oklahoma except No 
Man's Land and Greer County. Texas claimed Greer 
County. 

Disposal of Land by the Five Civilized Tribes. After 
the war, in 1866, all the tribes except the Cherokees, 
were forced to give up to the general government part 
of their territory. The Seminoles ceded to the United 




< w> tn 



<K<25Z0 5 

u D|->-U<OHo 

a. o-o £ 



O < 

a. < 
< * 

* z 
2o 



86 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

States all of their land between the North and South 
Canadian rivers, and bought from the Creeks 200,000 
acres of land lying just east of their former possession. 
At the same time the Creeks ceded all the western part 
of their lands to the United States. The Choctaws and 
Chickasaws gave up their land west of the 98th me- 
ridian. The Cherokees divided their lands along the 96th 
meridian and authorized the United States government to 



Fig. 49. Wichita Grass Houses 

settle friendly Indians in the western part of the terri- 
tory, known as the Cherokee Outlet. They still owned 
this land, however. 

Settlement of Friendly Indians in Oklahoma. It was 
about this time that the government began to pursue 
the policy of bringing scattered tribes or remnants of 
tribes from other parts of the country and settling them 
on this land, which had been given up by the Five Civil- 
ized Tribes. The eastern part of the State, which was re- 



LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES 



87 



tained by the Five Civilized Tribes, was afterward known 
as Indian Territory. The western part, settled by vari- 
ous tribes, was called Oklahoma. 

In 1867 the Sac and Fox Indians ceded their lands in 
Wisconsin to the United States government and received 
750,000 acres of land between the Cimarron and North 
Canadian rivers. The same year several bands and rem- 
nants of tribes settled in the northeast corner of the 




Fig. 50. Sac and Fox Bark House 



Cherokee country in the region east of the Neosho River. 
Among these were the Wyandottes, Quapaws, Miamias, 
Senecas, and Peorias. The Pottawatomies came from In- 
diana and Michigan the same year and received land be- 
tween the two Canadian rivers, extending west from the 
Seminole country to the Indian meridian. The Kiowas 
and Comanches, two tribes of "Wild Indians of the 
Plains," were the same year assigned a reservation be- 
tween the Washita and Red rivers extending west from 



88 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



the Chickasaw country to the North Fork of the Red 
River. 

In 1869 the Cheyermes and Arapahoes, also Plains In- 
dians, were given lands between the 98th and 100th me- 
ridians, extending from the Washita River north to the 
Cherokee Strip. 

In 1872 the Osages sold their land in Kansas and 
bought of the Cherokees a tract bounded by the 96th 




Fig. 51. Conical Tepees of the Comanches 



meridian, the Kansas line, the Arkansas River and the 
Creek country. They, in turn, sold to the Kaw Indians, 
who came from eastern Kansas, the western part of their 
country, including that part of what is now Kay County 
which lies east of the Arkansas River. The same year 
the Wichitas and Caddos ceded lands which they owned 
in Texas and Louisiana to the government and received 
a tract between the Washita and South Canadian rivers 
extending from the 98th meridian to a line 38 miles west. 



LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES 



89 



The Pawnees in 1875 sold their land in Nebraska and 
received twelve townships lying between the Arkansas 
and Cimarron rivers in what is now Pawnee County. In 
1881 the Otoe, Missouri, and Ponca Indians came from 
Nebraska and settled on reservations in what is now east- 
ern Kay and Noble counties. 

In 1883 the Iowas 
from Iowa and the 
Kickapoos from Mexico 
received tracts of land 
in what is now Lincoln 
County, the former set- 
tling north of Deep 
Fork, the latter south. 

Fig. 48 shows the lo- 
cation of the various 
tribes in Oklahoma be- 
fore any land was op- 
ened to settlement. 

The Apache Indians, 
who were once the ter- 
ror of Arizona under 
Geronimo. are now held 
at Fort Sill Military 
Reservation i n Co- 
manche County, where 
they have been for six- 
teen years under military supervision and direction. The 
Apaches are virtually prisoners of war and do not own 
any land. There are about 230 Apaches in this group. 

Mode of life. For many years after settling on their 
Oklahoma reservations these Indians retained their prim- 




Fig. 52. Indian Papoose 



90 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 

itive customs. Each tribe had its own peculiar form of 
house. The Wichitas lived in grass houses, as shown in Fig. 
49, the Sac and Fox and Kaw Indians had bark houses, 
such as those in Fig. 50, and the wild Indians of the 
Plains used the conical tepee pictured in Fig. 51. Later 
the government built houses on the allotments. Today 
the greater part of the Indians live in wooden .houses and 
are engaged in farming and stock-raising. Fig. 52 shows 
an Indian papoose. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. What Indian tribes originally occupied the territory now 
comprised in Oklahoma? 

2. Where did the Five Civilized Tribes live? 

3. When did each of these tribes come west? 

4. Where did each tribe settle? 

5. What land was given up by each tribe after the Civil War? 

6. What policy did the government establish regarding the 
location of scattered tribes? 

7. Give the original home and the location of the land in Okla- 
homa given to the Sac and Foxes; the Pottawatomies; the Kiowas 
and Comanches; Cheyennes and Arapahoes; Osages; Kaws; Paw- 
nees; Otoes and Missouris; Iowas; Kickapoos; Apaches. 



CHAPTER IX. 
EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

Old Oklahoma. After the various Indian tribes from 
different parts of the United States had been settled on 
their reservations there still remained a tract of land in 
the center of the territory containing 1 about 2,000,000 
acres, which was unoccupied by any tribe. This tract 
extended from the Indian meridian west to the 98th me- 
ridian and from the Cherokee Strip south to the South 
Canadian River. (See Fig. 48.) It was called the Okla- 
homa country. The name was derived from two Choc- 
taw words, "Okla, " meaning people or tribe, and 
"Homa," meaning red. The word Oklahoma, then, means 
red people or red tribe. 

Agitation Leading to the Opening of Oklahoma to Set- 
tlement. For a number of years this country was occu- 
pied by stockmen only. Beginning about 1875 an agita- 
tion was commenced to induce the government to open 
the lands to settlement. It was claimed that it was no 
longer Indian land, but a part of the public domain. Be- 
ginning with the year 1880 determined efforts were made 
to force the opening of the Oklahoma country. Boomer 
colonies were organized along the north line of the Cher- 
okee Strip and many caravans of white-topped "prairie 
schooners" moved south to the "promised land." 

Many men had part in this agitation, but the one to 
whom most credit is due was Capt. David L. Payne, the 

91 



92 



GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 



prince of Oklahoma boomers. Five times he led colonies 
of settlers into Oklahoma, He was arrested a number of 
times and his followers put out of the country by United 
States troops. He was tried in court for trespassing, but 
was cleared of the charge, the Court holding that Okla- 
homa was public domain. Capt. Payne died at Welling- 
ton, Kansas, in 1884, five years before the country was 
opened. 
Opening" of Oklahoma. Agitation continued, and finally 




Fig. 53. The Opening of Oklahoma 



Congress passed an Act authorizing the settlement of 
Oklahoma. The President issued a proclamation and at 
noon on April 22, 1889, the country was opened to settle- 
ment. The opening was conducted on the horse race 
plan, as shown in Fig. 53, every contestant running for 
a piece of land and taking what he could get. In many 
cases two or more persons got on the same tract of land. 
Many contests followed, often leading to bloodshed and 
in many cases long-continued law-suits. The counties of 
Logan, Payne, Oklahoma, Cleveland, Canadian and King- 



EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 93 

fisher were framed from old Oklahoma. Additions to all 
these counties have been made from lands acquired from 
time to time by the opening of adjacent reservations. A 
territorial government was inaugurated. Geo. W. Steele 
of Indiana was appointed the first Governor. 

No Man's Land. In 1890 Beaver County, sometimes 
known as the Neutral Strip, No Man's Land, or Cimarron 
Territory, was added to Oklahoma. This strip of land, 
167 miles long and 35 miles wide, containing 3,682,360 
acres, extends west from the main part of Oklahoma. It 
once belonged to Mexico and afterward was a part of the 
Republic of Texas, but was not admitted as a part of the 
State of Texas because it lies north of 36° 30', the north- 
ern limit of slave territory. For a number of years it 
was not a part of any state or territory. It was settled, 
however, and the citizens met, organized a government, 
and named the country Cimarron Territory. They elected 
officers and even sent a delegate to Congress, but he was 
not recognized. 

Other Reservations. The Territory of Oklahoma hav- 
ing been organized the government began to pursue the 
policy of opening to settlement other adjacent reserva- 
tions. Treaties were from time to time made with the 
various tribes. The Indians received allotments of land, 
usually 160 acres for each man, woman and child. The 
remainder, usually the poorest land, was then thrown 
open to settlement by white men. 

On Sept. 22, 1891, the Sac and Fox, Iowa and Pottawat- 
omie reservations in eastern Oklahoma were opened for 
settlement. The reservations contained 1,282,434 acres. 
This opening was also on the horse race plan and much 
dispute and many contests arose. Portions of Pottawat- 



94 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

omie, Lincoln, Cleveland, Logan, Oklahoma and Payne 
counties were formed from these reservations. 

The Cheyenne and Arapaho country in western Okla- 
homa, embracing 4,297,771 acres, was opened on April 19, 

1892. This country extends from old Oklahoma west to 
Texas and lies south of the Cherokee Strip. All or part 
of Blaine, Washita, Custer, Dewey, Roger Mills, Ellis, 
Beckham, Canadian and Kingfisher counties are included 
in the reservation. The horse race plan was followed, but 
the country was so large that only a small part of it near 
the border was settled on the day of the opening, so that 
contests were not so common as in the other reservations. 

The Cherokee Strip. The Cherokee Strip, containing 
6,014,239 acres, was opened to settlement September 16, 

1893. This is the largest reservation ever opened in Okla- 
homa, and contains some of the finest agricultural land in 
the State. In the opening of this reservation an attempt 
was made to regulate the abuses that had marked former 
openings. Booths were established along the border. No 
one was permitted to file on land who could not produce 
a booth certificate to prove that he was not a "sooner," 
a term applied to persons in Oklahoma who had entered 
upon land before it was legally opened to settlement. The 
booth system was not a success and many contests oc- 
curred. Pawnee, Noble, Kay, Grant, Garfield, Alfalfa, 
Major, Woods, Woodward, and Harper and part of Payne 
and Ellis counties were in the Cherokee Strip. 

On May 23, 1895, the Kickapoo lands, containing 206,662 
acres located in eastern Oklahoma, were opened to set- 
tlement. The horse race was the feature of the opening 
and many contests resulted. The Kickapoo country was 



EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 95 

divided between Lincoln, Oklahoma, and Pottawatomie 
counties. 

Greer County. . By a decision of a supreme court of the 
United States rendered March 16, 1896, Greer County, 
containing 1,511,566 acres was added to Oklahoma. This 
country had been claimed as a part of Texas and that 
state had exercised jurisdiction over the disputed terri- 
tory. The point at issue dated back to the time of the 
Louisiana purchase, and depended upon whether the 
North Fork or South Fork of Red River was the main 
branch of that stream. Greer, Jackson and part of Beck- 
ham counties are in this territory. 

The Kiowa Country. The Kiowa, Comanche, and Wich- 
ita reservations, comprising nearly 4,000,000 acres, were 
opened to settlement August 6, 1901. For the first 
time the race horse was done away with and the drawing 
plan was adopted. Every applicant was required to reg- 
ister, the names were placed in a box, then drawn out, 
numbered, and the applicant allowed to file in the order 
of the number thus drawn. AH of Caddo, Kiowa, Comanche 
and Tillman counties, and parts of Jefferson, Stevens, 
Grady, Canadian and Blaine counties, belonged to this 
reservation. 

Certain areas in these reservations were reserved by 
the Kiowa and Comanche Indians and known as pasture 
reserves. These were opened to settlement in 1907. This 
land was sold by private bids. 

The Kansas reservation and portions of the Ponca res- 
ervation have been attached to Kay County. Parts of the 
Ponca and Otoe and Missouri reservations were added to 
Noble County. Pawnee County received portions of the 
Otoe and Missouri reservations. In these reservations all 



96 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



the land was alloted to the Indians, so none of it was sub- 
ject to settlement by white men. 

The Osage reservation now forms a county. This land 
belongs to the Osage Indians and they have divided the 
land pro rata, each Indian receiving 659 acres. 

Indian Territory. On the Indian Territory side of the 
State conditions were very different. Here all the land 
had belonged to the Five Civilized Tribes ever since they 



1 




i 


IF 








: -:• 







Fig. 54. Indian Cabin, Eastern Oklahoma 



came west 70 years before. According to the ancient 
treaties, "as long as the sun shall shine; as long as the 
grass shall grow; as long as water shall run; the land 
shall be to you and your children." For many years 
few white men were permitted to live in the Indian coun- 
try. After the advent of railroads, however, white set- 
tlers became more numerous. Towns began to spring 
up. Each Indian tribe, however, retained its own govern- 
ment, made its own laws, and managed its own schools. 



EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 97 

Some of the Indians had fine homes, but the greater part 
of them lived in little cabins near some mountain spring, 
such as shown in Figs. 54 and 55. 

Work of Dawes Commission. When the people of Okla- 
homa began the agitation for Statehood, Congress ap- 
pointed a commission known as the Commission to the 
Five Civilized Tribes, popularly known as the Dawes Com- 
mission, to settle up the affairs of these nations. This 




Fig. 55. Indian Cabin in the Timber 

Commission has been employed for a number of years in 
this work. It has virtually stood in the light of an admin- 
istrator to several thousand minor heirs. Rolls of citizens 
of the various tribes have been prepared. The land has 
been surveyed and appraised. Each citizen has received 
his allotment of land. Tribal relations have about all been 
dissolved. 

When the Indians moved west many of them held Negro 
slaves. These slaves were made free by the Fourteenth 



98 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Amendment to the United States Constitution. These 
Negroes, known as freedmen, have always lived with the 
Indians in the various nations. When the land was 
divided the freedmen received allotments also. Much of 
the best land in Oklahoma is now owned by Negroes who 
were once slaves. 

Admission of Oklahoma. When this had been done 
Congress passed an Enabling Act, permitting the people 



-%'f^Hls^v^ 




Fig. 56. Sod House in Western Oklahoma 



of the two territories to frame a State government. Dele- 
gates were elected and a Constitutional Convention held. 
A constitution was written, which was adopted by the 
people by a large majority. November 16, 1907, the 
State of Oklahoma was admitted as the 46th State of 
the Union. 

Character of Settlers. The first settlers of Oklahoma 
were from all parts of the Union. They were hardy, in- 
dustrious and energetic, used to privations and hardships. 



EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 



99 



Few of them had money, but they had what was better — 
courage and ability. They came to Oklahoma, not through 
love of adventure, but in order to obtain a home for 
themselves and their children. For the first few years 
they lived in a very primitive manner. In the prairie 
country the settler's first home was usually a dugout or 
sod house. Types of early buildings are shown in Figs. 
56 and 57. In the timber a log house would be built. 

Usually the settlers 
were many imiles from 
the railroad and all 
provisions and farm 
products had to be 
hauled in wagons. Ox 
teams were often used 
in farming, as shown 
in Fig. 58. In a few 
years the country be- 
came more prosperous. 
Railroads were built 
and towns sprang up. 
The dugouts and sod 
houses were abandon- 
ed and substantial 

stone or frame houses built.*; In most parts of Oklahoma 
today the farms are as well improved as in many of the 
older states. Fig. 59 shows a modern up-to-date Okla- 
homa farm house. 




Fig. 57. A Claim Shanty in 
Western Oklahoma 



Fig. 58. Breaking Ground in the Timbered Country 




4 ' 1' " 




Fig. 59. Modern Oklahoma Farm House 



100 



EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 101 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Locate old Oklahoma. 

2. "What does the word Oklahoma mean? 

3. When was Oklahoma opened for settlement? 

4. Who was the first Governor? 

5. Give a brief history of No Man's Land. 

6. What reservations were opened to settlement in 1891? 

7. When was the Cheyenne and Arapaho country opened? 

8. Describe the opening of the Cherokee strip. 

9. What is a "sooner"? 

10. When was the Kickapoo country opened? 

11. How did Oklahoma secure Greer County? 

12. How was the Kiowa and Comanche country opened? 

13. Which was the last reservation to be opened to settlement? 

14. How was the land in Indian Territory disposed of? 

15. When was Oklahoma admitted into the Union? 

16. What was the character of the first settlers? 



CHAPTER X. 
EDUCATION. 

Free Education. Education is free in Oklahoma. Free 
public schools in city and country are open to all children 
between the ages of 6 and 21. All the larger towns and 
many of the counties have free high schools. On complet- 
ing the high school the young man or young woman may 
enter the State University, which is the capstone of the 
educational system of the State, and there secure without 
tuition as good an education as the country affords. 

School Laws. Oklahoma has a magnificent endowment 
of school land. When the lands of the Territory of Okla- 
homa were open to settlement, sections 16 and 36 in each 
township were reserved by the government to be used for 
the benefit of the schools. In certain parts of the Terri- 
tory section 13 has also been reserved. This land has 
been leased and the income derived has been used by the 
State for the benefit of its public schools. Certain grants 
of land aggregating more than 1,000,000 acres in the west- 
ern part of the State were set apart for the benefit of 
the higher institutions of learning, including the Univer- 
sity, the Agricultural College and the Normal Schools. 
One of the greatest problems before the people of Okla- 
homa is that of the disposal of the school land. Whether 
the lands are sold, or whether the State keeps the land 
and leases it, the income will continue to be used for the 
benefit of the school children of the State. There is no 

102 



EDUCATION 



103 



school land in the Indian Territory part of Oklahoma. 
All the land in that region belonged to the Indians and 
was not government land. In lieu of public land, Con- 
gress donated to the State school fund $5,000,000. 

State Superintendent. The educational interests of the 
State are in charge of the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction, who is elected by the people. He is a member 
of the State Board of Education, the Board of Regents 
of the State Normal 
Schools, and other State 
Boards. He outlines the 
educational policy of 
the State, proposes 
school legislation, con- 
sults with county and 
city superintendents, 
and has general over- 
sight of all educational 
'matters in the State. 
Country Schools. The 
country schools of each 
county are in charge 
of a County Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction. He organizes new school 
districts, visits each school in the county at least once a 
year, has charge of the summer normal institute, conducts 
examinations and issues certificates to teachers. Three 
grades of certificates are issued: a first grade, good for 
three years; a second grade, good for two years; and a 
third grade, good for one year. Each teacher in the county 
is supposed to attend the county normal institute, which 
is held during the summer and continues not less than 




Fig. 60. Stone School House, 
Kay County 



104 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



two nor more than four weeks. Each county is divided 
into a number of school districts, each of which is under 
the direction of a board composed of three members, who 
hire a teacher and look after the general interests of the 
school. One member of the board is elected each year at 
the annual school meeting. All the voters of the district 
may attend this meeting and have a voice in the election 
of members of the board, the length of school term and 









"*"*,• •"---'■ 




Kilt •:? m 

1 lit;: wlEPlpi 







Fig. 61. Science Hall, State University 



the amount of tax to be levied. Fig. 60 shows a stone 
schoolhouse in Kay County. 

City Schools. The public schools in the cities are under 
the control of a Board of Education elected by the people. 
This board employs a city superintendent, who has direct 
charge of all school matters, a high school principal, as 
many ward principals as there are ward buildings and 
high school and grade teachers. These city schools are 
graded. Children enter first the kindergarten, then pass 



EDUCATION 105 

through the various grades. After completing the eighth 
grade they may enter the high school, which includes the 
ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades. On complet- 
ing the high school they may enter the State University. 
State Schools. The State University (See Fig. 61) is 
located at Norman. In it young men and women receive 
training in higher learning, such as the languages, 
mathematics, history, the sciences, medicine, law, phar- 
macy, music and engineering. Graduates of accredited 




*:-'&» ,. ■ 



Fig. 62. Buildings at the A. and M. College 

high schools and academies, the University Preparatory 
Schools and the Normal Schools are admitted to the Uni- 
versity without examination. 

The Agricultural and Mechanical College is at Stil- 
water. (See Fig. 62.) It is primarily a school for train- 
ing in agriculture and the mechanic arts. The greater 
part of the students are from farms. The state experi- 
ment station is in connection with it. Oklahoma has six 
normal schools, located, respectively, at Edmond, Alva, 
Weatherford, Tahlequah, Durant and Ada. These schools 
are intended for the training of teachers. University 



106 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

preparatory schools are located at Tonkawa and Clare- 
more. The work offered is the same as that given in 
the high schools, the object being to train students for 
the State University. The School of Mines is at Wilbur- 
ton and the Colored Agricultural and Normal University 
at Langston. 

Church Schools. There are a number of denomina- 
tional colleges in different parts of the State supported 
by the various churches. Kingfisher College (Congre- 
gational) at Kingfisher is one of the oldest. Bacone 
(Baptist), Spaulding (Methodist) and Nazareth (Cath- 
olic) are at Muskogee; Henry Kendall (Presbyterian) at 
Tulsa, Epworth (Methodist) and St. Mary's (Catholic) at 
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Christian University at Enid, 
Sacred Heart (Catholic) at Sacred Heart, Hargrove Col- 
lege at Ardmore, and a Presbyterian college at Durant. 
Besides these there are a number of academies, seminaries, 
private schools, conservatories of music and business col- 
leges in various parts of the State. 

Religious Denominations. The various religious de- 
nominations are represented in Oklahoma. The value of 
church property is estimated at six million dollars. 

A high moral tone pervades the citizenship of Okla- 
homa. By a provision of the constitution, ratified by a 
vote of the people, the manufacture and sale of intoxi- 
cating liquors is prohibited for 21 years. Sobriety, moral- 
ity, industry and home-making are dominant traits. Okla- 
homa has a higher percentage of native-born American 
citizens than most states, and the general moral and re- 
ligious conditions are above the average. 



EDUCATION 107 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Who may attend free schools in Oklahoma? 

2. What schools are free to the people of the State? 

3. Where are the school lands located? 

4. What sections are reserved in each township? 

5. What are the duties of the State Superintendent? 

6. What are the duties of the County Superintendent? 

7. How are city schools graded? 

8. Locate the State schools. 

9. For what purpose is each State school established? 



CHAPTER XI. 
GOVERNMENT. 

Constitution. The organic law of Oklahoma is the Con- 
stitution, which was adopted by a popular vote of the 
people September 17, 1907. The Oklahoma Constitution 
is the most up-to-date of any of the state constitutions and 
contains a number of provisions not usually written into 
state constitutions. Among others may be mentioned the 
initiative and referendum, provisions for the control of 
corporations, prohibition of the liquor traffic and compul- 
sory primary elections. Political power is vested in the 
people and the Constitution may be amended by a ma- 
jority vote whenever the people desire. 

Oklahoma is represented in the Congress of the United 
States by two Senators and five members of the House 
of Representatives. Robert L. Owen of Muskogee and 
T. P. Gore of Lawton were the first United States Sen- 
ators elected from Oklahoma. 

The government of Oklahoma is vested in three de- 
partments — the legislative, which makes the laws; the 
executive, which enforces the laws, and the judicial, 
which interprets the laws and applies them to individual 
cases. 

Legislative Department, The legislative department is 
composed of two bodies. The House of Representatives is 
composed now of 109 members elected by the people for 
two years. Each county has at least one representative; 

108 



GOVERNMENT 109 

the larger counties have two or more. The Senate is com- 
posed of 44 members elected from districts for a term of 
four years. Usually several counties compose a senatorial 
district. The presiding officer of the House is called the 
Speaker. The Lieutenant Governor presides over the Sen- 
ate. Laws must pass both the House and the Senate and 
be signed by the Governor. 

Executive Department. The executive department con- 
sists of a Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of 
State, Attorney General, Auditor, Treasurer, Superintend- 
ent of Public Instruction and State Examiner and In- 
spector, all of whom are elected by a popular vote for a 
term of four years. 

The following are the names of the principal executive 
officers of Oklahoma elected at the first State election : 

Governor Charles N. Haskell 

Lieutenant Governor George W. Bellamy 

Secretary of State William Cross 

Attorney General Charles "West 

Auditor M. E, Trapp 

Treasurer James A. Menefee 

State Superintendent E. D. Cameron 

State Examiner and Inspector. .Charles A. Taylor 
Other executive officers elected by the people are Mine 
Inspector, Commissioner of Labor, Commissioner of Char- 
ities and Corrections, Commissioner of Insurance and 
three Corporation Commissioners. The Governor ap- 
points a number of State officers, including Oil Inspector, 
Bank Examiner, State Librarian, Fish and Game Warden, 
Grain Inspector, Adjutant General. Several state boards 
and commissions are established by law, including the 
Board of Education, Board of Agriculture, Pharmaceuti- 



110 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

cal Board, State Board of Examiners, Text Book Commis- 
sion, Geological Survey Commission, Medical Board and 
the Boards of Regents of the various institutions of higher 
learning. 

Judicial Department. The judicial power is made up of 
a system of courts of various ranks. The lowest are justice 
of peace and police courts, of which there is at least one 
in each township and town. Next come the 75 county 
courts, one in each county. Several counties are combined 
into a district under the jurisdiction of a district judge. 
There are 21 district courts. The highest court in the 
State is the Supreme Court. It is composed of five judges, 
one of whom is Chief Justice. 

Local Government. The people in each county elect 
their own county officers, consisting of a County Judge, 
Sheriff, County Clerk, Attorney, Treasurer, Register of 
Deeds, Superintendent of Schools, Surveyor, Clerk of Dis- 
trict Court and three Commissioners. 

Counties are divided into townships. Township offi- 
cers are a Trustee, Clerk, Treasurer, Constables and Road 
Overseers. 

Cities have their own local government and elect their 
own officers. The executive officer is the Mayor. The 
legislative officers are councilmen, of whom two are 
elected from each ward. The council passes ordinances 
for the government of the city which in a way corre- 
spond to the laws passed by the State Legislature. The 
judicial department has a police judge, who tries small 
offenses. 



GOVERNMENT 111 

QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 

1. What is the organic law of the State? 

2. When was it written? When adopted? 

3. Name some unusual provisions in the Oklahoma Constitu- 
tion. 

4. Name the Oklahoma Senators. 

5. Give the functions of the three departments of government 
in Oklahoma. 

6. Of what two bodies is the State Legislature composed? 

7. How many members are there in the House of Representa- 
tives? How many Senators? 

8. Who is your Representative? Your Senator? 

9. Name the executive officers. 

10. Name the chief State boards. 

11. Of what does the judicial department consist? 

12. Name the county officers in your county. 

13. Name the officers in your city or township. 



CHAPTER XII. 
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 

In Oklahoma more persons are engaged in some form 
of agriculture than in all other occupations combined. 
The mild and favorable climate and the great diversity of 
fertile soil make possible the raising of a large variety of 
farm products. 

Soil Areas. The State has a number of soil areas which 
in a general way correspond with the Topographic Re- 
gions outlined in Chapter II. With the exception of the 
rougher parts of the four mountain regions and certain 
localities among the Sandstone Hills and Gypsum Hills, 
there is very little of Oklahoma that may not be success 1 
fully cultivated. 

At the present time not more than one-third of the 
agricultural resources of the State have been developed. 
A great part of the most fertile land in Oklahoma has not 
yet been put under cultivation. This is especially true 
in the eastern counties, where the greater part of the 
land belongs to citizens of the Five Civilized Tribes. As 
the condition of soil, underground water and climate vary 
from place to place, the forms of agriculture vary, so that 
there are well-defined crop belts in various parts of the 
State. The positions of these crop belts are determined 
largely by three sets of factors : Rainfall, temperature and 
character of the soil. 

Soil. Soil consists of broken-up rock fragments mixed 

112 



AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 



11 J 



with decayed vegetable and animal substances. It is of 
two general kinds, residual soil and transported soil. 

Residual Soil. Residual soil is derived from the rocks 
in place— that is, it has not been carried for any great 
distance. Sandstone produces sandy soil, limestone a 
limestone soil and shale and clay rocks a clay soil. By 
far the greater part of the soil in Oklahoma is residual 
and partakes of the character of the rocks from which 




Fig. 63. Corn Awaiting Market 



it was derived. In the limestone regions, particularly 
among the Flint Hills and the Ozark and Arbuckle moun- 
tains, there is an abundance of rich, black limestone soil. 
Among the Sand Hills in the central and western counties 
the soil is often sandy. The Coal Measures rocks in east- 
ern Oklahoma, which consist largely of clay and shale, 
have produced a stiff clay soil. All over central and 
western Oklahoma the greater part of the soil is deep red, 
being derived from the brick-red shales and clays of the 



114 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Redbeds. On the High Plains the soil is deep and black, 
and only the lack of sufficient rainfall prevents the raising 
of a great variety of crops. 

Transported Soil. Transported soils are those that have 
been carried for considerable distances. "Wind, water and 
ice are the chief agents that carry soils. In the northern 
states much of the soil has been brought in by the ice 
during the glacial epoch. There is, however, no glacial 
soil in Oklahoma. The soil on the bottom lands along 




Fig. 64. Two Views Illustrating Wheat-raising 



the streams, usually known as alluvium, has been carried 
downstream by water. On account of the unusually large 
number of streams which cross the State, Oklahoma con- 
tains a larger proportion of rich alluvial soil than almost 
any other state. Much of the so-called black land on the 
high divides in central and western Oklahoma and the 
sandy soil in the sandhills has been carried in by the wind. 
In general, alluvial soil and limestone soil are consid- 
ered the most fertile. The Redbeds soil comes next. 



AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 115 

Sandy soil and clay soil are fairly fertile also. Care 
must be taken to prevent the sandy soil from washing 
and blowing. 

But little fertilizer has been used in Oklahoma. Fields 
that have been cultivated continuously for twenty years 
still produce abundantly. Western Oklahoma contains an 
inexhaustible amount of gypsum, which is a natural fer- 
tilizer. The time will come when this material will be 
used to enrich the worn-out soils of the State. 

Corn. Corn, wheat, oats and kafir corn are the most 
important grain crops raised in Oklahoma. Corn has the 







Fig. 65. Thrashing Wheat in Northern Oklahoma 

widest range, being produced abundantly in all sections 
of the State except on the High Plains in the extreme 
western part. In many of the central and northern coun- 
ties corn is the great staple crop. On account of the 
length of the season a corn crop is often raised on land 
from which a wheat crop has been harvested. Much of 
the corn is fed to stock on the farm on which it is raised, 
although many hundreds of thousands of bushels are each 
year shipped to outside markets. Fig. 63 shows corn piled 
up alongside a railroad awaiting shipment. In 1906 
134,230,590 bushels of corn, valued at $65,000,000 were 
raised in Oklahoma. 



116 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Wheat. Wheat is raised chiefly in northern Oklahoma. 
In such counties as Kay, Grant, Garfield, Kingfisher, Al- 
falfa, Woods, Blaine and Canadian it is the leading crop. 
Various scenes illustrating wheat raising are shown in 
Figs. 64 and 65. Even in the three western counties 
which are located on the High Plains, certain varieties of 
hard wheat are raised at a profit. About one-third of the 
wheat raised is ground into flour in Oklahoma mills. 




-,,i :*,/"': 






Fig. 66. Hauling Broom-corn to Market 

Much of the flour and wheat are exported to the eastern 
states or to Europe. Hundreds of thousands of bushels 
each year go to Liverpool by way of Galveston. The 
wheat crop of 1906 was 20,554,000 bushels, valued at 
$13,000,000. 

Oats and Other Small Grain, Oats are raised chiefly 
in the central and northern part of Oklahoma. Ten mil- 
lion five hundred thousand bushels of oats, valued at 
$5,700,000, were raised in Oklahoma in 1906. The greater 



AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 



117 



part of the crop is fed to live stock in the State, although 
a large amount is exported. Kafir corn, milo maize, mil- 
let, barley and sorghum are raised in many parts of the 
State, particularly in the western counties. These crops 
are used both for forage and grain. On the High Plains 
kafir corn and milo maize produce as many bushels of 
grain per acre as do the more common grain crops in a 




Fig. 67. Cotton Going to Market 



region of greater rainfall. The value of the kafir corn 
crop is $2,000,000 a year. 

Broom Corn. The last few years Oklahoma has pro- 
duced more broom corn than any other State in the Union. 
The soil and the climate of the western part of the State 
are particularly suited to this crop. 44,749 tons, valued 
$1,483,000 were produced in 1906. Fig. 66 illustrates mar- 
keting broom corn at Woodward. 

Cotton. Cotton, which is one of the most important 
crops raised in Oklahoma, is cultivated most extensively 



118 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

in the southern part of the State, chiefly in the counties 
south of the Arkansas and Cimarron rivers. Figs. 67, 68 
and 69 illustrate various stages in marketing cotton. 
Oklahoma cotton is noted the world over for the long 
superior quality of its fiber, and for that reason it is in 
great demand. Cotton always commands a ready sale, 
and so can be depended upon as a money-making crop. 
Nearly all the cotton raised in the State is exported, the 
greater part of it going by way of Galveston to European 
ports or to eastern states. During the past few years 
much cotton has been exported to the Orient, especially 
to Japan. In 1906 Oklahoma produced 918,000 bales of 
cotton, valued at $48,500,000, and the value of the cotton- 
seed products was $6,012,000. 

Alfalfa. Alfalfa, our greatest hay and forage crop, is 
grown in every county of the State, and each year wit- 
nesses a largely increased acreage. From three to five 
cuttings are produced each year, depending upon the loca- 
tion and length of the season. Alfalfa does best on bottom 
land or under irrigation, but it is grown on the upland 
also. The value of the alfalfa crop is more than one 
million dollars a year. Bermuda grass is also a valuable 
forage crop. 

Prairie Hay. During the early settlement of the coun- 
try prairie grass was cut for hay in all parts of the State. 
With more extensive farming in the older counties, the 
greater part of the land once covered with prairie sod 
has been placed under cultivation, and alfalfa is now 
grown. In many parts of Oklahoma, however, much 
prairie hay is still cut, particularly in Craig, Nowata, 
Rogers, Mayes, Wagoner, Muskogee, Comanche and Till- 
man counties. The hay is usually baled in the field the 




Fig. 68. A Train Load of Cotton 




Fig. 69. Cotton Bales on Board Cars. 



119 



120 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 

same day it is cut. It is usually stored in hay barns until 
it is shipped, the greater part of it going to Kansas City, 
St. Louis, Memphis and New Orleans markets. The hay 
crop sells for more than $3,000,000 a year. 

Fruit. Fruit raising is destined to become one of the 
most important industries in Oklahoma. Both soil and 
climate are particularly adapted to the culture of a very 
large variety of fruits. A typical fruit farm is shown in 
Fig. 70. There are more than twenty species of wild 
fruits growing in Oklahoma, including blackberries, rasp- 



Fig. 70. A Fruit Farm in Central Oklahoma 

berries, strawberries, grapes and several species of plums. 
The cultivated varieties of apricots, grapes, cherries, pears, 
plums, quinces and several kinds of berries thrive well. 
The staple fruits are peaches and apples, both of which 
grow to larger size and possess a more excellent flavor 
than those in adjoining states. Extensive orchards are 
found in many parts of the State, particularly in Cleve- 
land, Oklahoma, Logan, Lincoln and Pottawatomie coun- 
ties. There is no part of the State except the extreme 
western counties where the staple fruits do not thrive. 



AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 121 

The income from the orchards of Oklahoma is more than 
$2,000,000 a year. 

Potatoes. Potatoes are grown for home use in every 
county and as a farm crop in a number of localities. Many 
farmers have made small fortunes raising potatoes. This 
crop does best in the warm, sandy bottom lands of such 
streams as the Arkansas and Canadian rivers. More pota- 
toes are shipped from Shawnee and Fort Gibson than from 
any other points. Two crops are raised each year. The 
first crop, which is harvested in June, is shipped to north- 
ern markets. The second crop is dug in October and is 
disposed of largely to local dealers. The value of the 
potato crop is $1,500,000 annually, Sweet potatoes are 
extensively grown in many counties, particularly in the 
fertile sandy upland loam of Canadian and Oklahoma 
counties. Hundreds of carloads of sweet potatoes are 
shipped each year to northern and eastern markets. 

Vegetables. Vegetable gardening and truck farming 
are carried on quite extensively near several of the larger 
cities. In a number of localities sweet corn, tomatoes and 
peas are raised for canning purposes. Onions are exten- 
sively cultivated in many localities. The soil and climate 
of Oklahoma are well adapted to truck farming, and only 
the absence of a home market prevents the development 
of a flourishing industry. 

Minor Crops. There are several crops of minor im- 
portance which may be mentioned. Castor beans are an 
important source of income in some localities in the central 
and western counties. Watermelons are raised chiefly in 
the sandhill regions and hundreds of carloads of melons 
are each year shipped to the northern markets. Canta- 
loupes are becoming an important crop in many places. 



122 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Pecans and other nuts are gathered and shipped from a 
number of towns in southern Oklahoma. Peanuts are cul- 
tivated in many places. Flax is not an important crop, 
but has been successfully raised in many counties. To- 
bacco grows well in the eastern part of the State. 

Stock Raising — Cattle. Oklahoma ranks high in the 
production of live stock, especially cattle, hogs, horses 
and mules. For many years Oklahoma and Indian Terri- 
tory were the stockman's paradise. Nowhere on the con- 



Fig. 71. Cattle on the Plains 

tinent could be found more nutritious grasses and abun- 
dant water. These, with the mild climate and timber 
along the streams, which formed windbreaks, all com- 
bined to make cattle raising profitable. Hundreds of thou- 
sands of half-wild, long-horned cattle roamed at will over 
the broad prairies, as shown in Fig. 71. These cattle 
were marked with the owner's brand. Twice a year the 
owners and cowboys collected these cattle in " round- 



AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 123 

ups" and separated those belonging to the different own- 
ers. When the adjoining states, Kansas and Texas, were 
settled, the free range became more restricted. As parts 
of Oklahoma were from time to time opened to settlement 
the cowman retreated before the advance of civilization. 
His last stand was in "No Man's Land," the Osage Na- 
tion, and the "Big Pasture" in Comanche County. But 
even these regions are now being allotted or settled and 
the reign of the cattleman in Oklahoma is at an end. 

As the country has been settled and the amount of free 
range decreased the grade of cattle has been constantly 
improved. The long-horn has disappeared forever. High- 
grade dairy and beef cattle are now raised on practically 
every farm in Oklahoma, and it is altogether probable that 
the total number of cattle in the State is greater than 
during the period of free range. In 1907 Oklahoma had 
3,200,000 cattle. The value of animals slaughtered for 
local market was $9,000,000. 

Horses. Horses and mules are also raised in all parts 
of Oklahoma. During the period of free range there 
was no need for heavy draft animals and the only horses 
in demand were light-weight, active saddle horses known 
as "cow ponies." With the coming of the settler, how- 
ever, the grade of horses has improved until at the pres- 
ent time the farm horses and roadsters bred in Oklahoma 
compare favorably with those of any of the older states. 
In 1907 there were 870,000 horses and mules in Oklahoma, 
valued at $17,898,000. 

Hogs. Formerly hogs were raised only in the corn belt, 
but with the introduction of the growth of alfalfa hogs 
are being successfully raised in practically all parts of 
the State. Sheep are raised in certain localities and wool 



124 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

is becoming an important source of income. Angora goats 
are raised in several places. 

Usually the cattle and hogs raised in Oklahoma are 
shipped out of the State for slaughter, the greater part 
going to the stockyards at Fort "Worth and Kansas City. 
Packing plants are located at Oklahoma City and Mus- 
kogee. Many of the products, such as salt and canned 
meats, soap and lard, come back to the State and are 
used on the farms and ranches where the animals were, 
grown. Local butcher shops are supplied from home- 
grown cattle and hogs. Many farmers cure their own 
meat. 

Dairying'. Dairying is rapidly becoming an important 
industry. The introduction of hand separators has made 
it possible to put the milk into marketable condition. 
Cream is separated on the farms and hauled in cans to 
shipping stations, from whence it is taken regularly to 
centrally-located creameries. Butter is still made on the 
farm, however, and milk forms a large part of the food. 
The cheap forage and grain, pure water and good roads 
of Oklahoma all combine to make dairying an important 
industry. The industry is further promoted by instruc- 
tion in the Agricultural College at Stillwater. The dairy 
herds are being improved and a number of large dairy 
farms are scattered throughout the State. The dairy 
productions of Oklahoma amount to $2,750,000 a year. 

Poultry. Poultry raising is carried on in all parts of 
the state and is constantly increasing. There is an 
abundance of natural food, and the climate and pure 
water insure the health of the fowls and their rapid 
growth at small expense. Chickens are raised on prac- 
tically all farms, and turkeys, ducks and geese are found 



AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 125 

in many communities, particularly in the eastern part of 
the State. Poultry and eggs form an important part of 
the food products and are shipped in large quantities to 
other states. The value of the poultry and eggs produced 
in Oklahoma each year is $3,500,000. 

The Farmer's Need. The great need of the Oklahoma 
farmer is a home market. With a soil and climate capable 
of producing a very large number of salable crops, he is 
compelled to raise only those products that can be shipped 
outside the State. As soon as the mineral resources of 
the State are developed, factories and plants will be estab- 
lished, mines and quarries opened, and the army of work- 
men necessary to operate these industries will create a 
home market for a great variety of farm products. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. What is the chief occupation of Oklahoma 1 ? 

2. Why are not the agricultural resources of the State more 
fully developed? 

3. Define soil. 

4. What are the two chief kinds of soil? 

5. Distinguish between the two kinds. 

6. What is the character of the soil near your home? 

7. What are the chief grain craps of Oklahoma? 

8. Where is corn raised? Wheat? Oats? Kaffir corn? 

9. Where is cotton raised? Where is it manufactured? 

10. What are the chief hay crops in the State? 

11. Name the principal fruits raised in Oklahoma. 

12. Where are potatoes grown? Vegetables? Watermelons? 
Peanuts? 

13. Why is Oklahoma a good stock country? 

14. What are the chief kinds of live stock raised? 

15. Name the chief breeds of cattle. Horses. Hogs. 

16. Where is dairying carried on? Poultry raising? 

17. What is the principal need of the Oklahoma farmer? 



CHAPTER XIII. 
MINERAL RESOURCES. 

Variety of Minerals in Oklahoma. Very few states 
have as many kinds of minerals or as much mineral of a 
kind as has Oklahoma. The new State has practically in- 
exhaustible quantities of eleven valuable mineral prod- 
ucts, as follows: Coal, oil, gas, asphalt, gypsum, salt, 
lead, zinc, clay of all kinds, stone of all kinds, and sand. 
In addition to these, Oklahoma has also considerable 
amounts of iron, some copper and a little gold and silver. 
There are also known deposits of such substances as 
tripoli, phosphate, volcanic ash, novaculite and the radium 
earths, and it is very probable that in time a number of 
other minerals not now known will be discovered. The 
map in Fig. 72 shows the locations of the principal min- 
erals in Oklahoma. 

Fortunately these mineral products are not confined 
to any single part of the State. They are widely dis- 
tributed. There is not a county that does not contain 
one or more of these products and usually several of them 
occur in the same locality. 

The Fuels. The minerals which are always of the 
greatest importance in the upbuilding of any region are 
the fuels, coal, oil and gas. For fuel is necessary 
in the development of manufacturing industries unless 
water power is present. In many parts of the country 
the fuel must either be hauled long distances to the raw 

126 



MINERAL RESOURCES' 



127 



material or the raw material hauled to the fuel. For 
instance, there are large deposits of iron along the shores 
of Lake Superior, but there is no fuel in the region, so 
the iron ore is carried to Chicago, Cleveland and Pitts- 
burg to be smelted. 



Mineral Resources of Oklahoma. 




tool and Zinc Ama 

|#jffl| lax/and Zinc Mines. \* ■ | Salt Ptams 

| -+- | Marble \\\\\\\\ PioMteCo"' A™ 

HHHl Gypsum. ry»"| Segregated Coa/ Lands | . ; V | Probable Ojl& Gas Area 

■,.■■■ ; | Gnmtte |a a a[ Asphalt Beds ^&&\ OpevfedOU* Gat fieias 



Fig. 72. Map Showing Mineral Products of Oklahoma 

Oklahoma's fuel supply is enormous. Coal, oil and gas 
are all present in large amounts. This means that not 
only will the raw material in the State be manufactured 
at home, but also the mineral products from other states 
will be shipped here to be manufactured. 



128 



GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 



Coal. The total amount of coal in Oklahoma can as 
yet be only estimated. According to the figures of the 
United States Geological Survey, there are in the old 
Choctaw Nation 2,945,138,000 tons of coal, which has 
been segregated or set apart for the benefit of the Choc- 
taw and Chickasaw Indians. This is probably not more 
than half the total amount of coal in the State, for there 
are vast deposits in the former Creek, Cherokee and 




Fig. 73. A Coal Mine at Midway 



Choctaw nations that have not been segregated. The 
total amount is probably not far from 6,000,000,000 tons. 
This is more coal than is found in most other states. More 
than 100 coal mines, large and small, are now being oper- 
ated, and the amount of coal mined is over 3,000,000 tons 
a year. A coal mine at Midway is shown in Fig. 73, and one 
at Lehigh in Fig. 74. The value of the coal mined in 1907 
was $11,440,000. The principal mines are located at or 
near McAlester, Krebs, Hartshorne, Haileyville, Alder- 



MINERAL RESOURCES' 



129 



son, Coalgate, Lehigh, Edwards, Savanna, Blocker, Hen- 
ryetta, Schulter, Broken Arrow, Dawson and Collins- 
ville. The coal is chiefly a high-grade bituminous coal. 
Coke is manufactured near a number of the mines, the 
fine coal or slack being used for that purpose. The out- 
put of the Oklahoma mines supplies a large part of the 
southern Great Plains with fuel. 

Oil. Only a small part of the Oklahoma oil and gas 




Fig. 74. Coal Mine at Lehigh 



fields have yet been developed; but, in spite of that, 
Oklahoma produced nearly 50,000,000 barrels of oil in 
1907. By far the greater part of the oil and gas so far 
found occurs in three general areas. The easternmost 
of the three areas, known as the Coody's Bluff- Alluwe 
field, lies along the Verdigris River in the eastern part 
of Nowata County. The oil is here found at a depth of 
500 to 600 feet below the surface and the field is known 
as the "shallow field." The second line of development 




130 



MINERAL RESOURCES' 



131 



is near the 96th meridian in Osage, Washington and 
Tulsa counties, extending from the Kansas line south for 
a distance of more than 76 miles. Along this line 
occur the oil fields of Copan, Dewey, Bartlesville, 
Ramona, Skiatook, Tulsa and Red Fork. At the southern 
end of the region lies 
the famous Glenn 
Pool, from which 20,- 
000,000 barrels of oil 
have been produced 
in less than two years. 
The third important 
oil-producing region 
is at Cleveland, Paw- 
nee County, shown in 
Fig. 75, where oil 
comes from a depth of 
1,700 feet, There are 
also a number of scat- 
tered fields, some of 
which show great 
promise of future de- 
velopment. The most 
important of these are- 
near Muskogee, Bald 
Hill and Morris . 

Small quantities of oil and gas have also been found at 
Madill and Wheeler, south of the Arbuckle Mountains, 
and at Lawton and Gotebo, near the Wichita Mountains. 
Fig. 76 shows a well from which the oil is flowing. 
When the oil comes from the wells it is carried in 2- 




Fig. 76. Oil Gushing from a 
New Well 



132 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



inch pipes to tanks which hold from 600 to 3,000 barrels 
each. When these tanks are full the oil is carried again 
by pipes to larger tanks which hold 35,000 barrels each. 
There are hundreds of these large tanks in the oil fields. 
Fig. 77 shows a number of tanks near Copan. From the 
large tanks the oil is carried away in 6-inch pipes. One 
pipe line runs from the Oklahoma oil fields north through 
Kansas and past Chicago to the Atlantic Coast. Two pipe 




Fig. 77. A Tank Farm Near Copan 



lines run south to the Gulf of Mexico. Much oil is shipped 
by train, as shown in Fig. 78. Part of the oil is used for 
fuel in locomotives and factories, but the greater part of 
it is refined. Our kerosene, gasoline, paraffine and lubri- 
cating oil is distilled petroleum. 

The Oklahoma oil field has all been developed within 
the past few years. The difficulty of securing titles to 
the land in the Indian Territory has hindered develop- 
ment. There is reason to believe that within a few years 
the area of the oil field will be greatly increased. 



MINERAL RESOURCES' 



133 



The amount of gas in Oklahoma is very great. 
Hundreds of wells flowing anywhere from 1,000,000 to 
10,000,000 cubic feet a day have been shut in, and many 
wells are reported to flow 40,000,000 to 80,000,000 cubic 
feet daily. Large areas of known productive territory 
have not yet been drilled because there is no market for 
the fuel. Natural gas is now being used in Oklahoma 
City, Guthrie, Muskogee, Ardmore, Tulsa, Bartlesville, 




Fig. 78. A Trainload of Oil Leaving Bartlesville 



Pawhuska, Coweta, Wagoner, Claremore, Chelsea and a 
number of other towns in the State. The abundance and 
cheapness of the gas is attracting manufacturing plants 
from other states, and before many years the gas and oil 
region will become the wealthiest part of Oklahoma. 

Asphalt. The deposits of asphalt in Oklahoma are, so 
far as known, among the most extensive in the United 
•States. Asphalt is found in many parts of the State, 
but chiefly in Murray and Carter counties, south of the 
Arbuckle Mountains. It occurs along fault lines or fis- 



134 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



sures, which extend from the surface to an unknown 
depth. The rocks along either side of the fissure for a 
distance of 10 to 50 feet are permeated with a semi- 
liquid asphalt, Hundreds of veins have already been 
found, and new ones are constantly being brought to light, 
so that no on© can say how much asphalt will eventually 
be discovered. Fig. 79 illustrates an asphalt mill and a 




Fig. 79. An Asphalt Mill and Mine Near Sulphur 

mine near Sulphur. The asphalt is used chiefly for street 
paving and roofing. The streets and country roads for 
a good part of the State will soon be paved with Okla- 
homa asphalt, and the supply is sufficient for many gen- 
erations. Fig. 80 shows the streets of Ardmore paved with 
Ardmore asphalt. 

Salt. There are in western Oklahoma seven regions of 
salt springs from which flow salt water so strong that 
100 parts of brine will make 33 parts of salt. The springs 








135 



138 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

which is shown in Fig. 82. These minerals are also re- 
ported from the Arbuekle Mountains. 

Building Stone. Building stone of almost all kinds is 
found in Oklahoma. Granite of very fine quality occurs 
in vast quantities in the Wichita and Arbuekle mountains. 
It is being quarried at Granite and Tishomingo. Gabbro, 
a fine black ornamental stone, is found in the Wichita 
Mountains, and is being quarried at Cold Springs. Por- 
phyry occurs in the Wichita and Arbuekle mountains. 
Limestone suitable for building stone or for burning into 
lime occurs in a number of counties in eastern and south- 
ern Oklahoma. Pig. 83 shows the effect of a blast in a 
limestone quarry at Crusher, in the Arbuekle Mountains, 
and Fig. 84 represents limestone posts in Kay County. 
Marble, which is found in several places, is used in the 
construction of some of the finest buildings in the State. 
The Pioneer Telephone building at Oklahoma City (Fig. 
85) was built of this marble. Sandstone is present in 
every county, and near practically every town ; it is used 
locally in the construction of residences and business 
blocks. The sandstone in the eastern part of the State 
is gray or brown in color. Some very handsome build- 
ings are built of this stone. In central and western Okla- 
homa the sandstone is usually red. At the present time 
comparatively little of the Oklahoma stone is being 
utilized, and a considerable part of the stone used in the 
construction of buildings comes from Kansas, Missouri 
or even from Indiana. 

Clay. Clay of various kinds is present in many parts 
of Oklahoma. Throughout the western part of the State 
there is a large amount of red clay shale, which is utilized 
for making pressed brick. In many places in eastern 





Fig. 83. Two Views Showing Effects of a Blast in a 
Limestone Quarry at Crusher, Okla. 



139 



140 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Oklahoma there is a clay suitable for the manufacture of 
drain tile, terra-cotta, stoneware, hollow-ware and other 
products. Large deposits of fire clay occur in the coal 
regions, and good kaolin, or fine pottery clay, is reported 
from the Wichita Mountains. Shale from various re- 
gions where limestone is abundant is suitable for the 
manufacture of Portland cement. The abundance and 
variety of these clay products, and the immense amounts 
of coal and gas, render it very probable that within a few 



! 






Fig. 84. Limestone Posts in Kay County. 



years a large number of clay-products plants will be in 
operation in Oklahoma. 

Sand. There is no part of Oklahoma where sand does 
not occur. Building sand is everywhere sufficient for 
local demands. In several places, particularly in the Ar- 
buckle Mountains, large deposits of a very fine grade of 
glass sand have been found. Fig. 86 shows a ledge of 
glass sand near Bromide. Glass sand differs from other 
sand in that it is almost pure white, and contains very 
little iron or other impurities. In some cases this sand 
is near veins of coal or natural gas. The glass factories 



MINERAL RESOURCES' 



141 



in southern Kansas and northern Oklahoma haul their 
glass sand from Illinois and Iowa because it is cheaper 
to transport the sand to the fuel than to bring the fuel 
to the sand. As soon as the Oklahoma glass sand de- 
posits have been de- 
veloped another valu- 
able industry will be 
added to the State. 

Iron has been found 
in small quantities in 
several places. A high- 
grade maganese iron 
ore has been discover- 
ed in the Arbuclde 
Mountains and hun- 
dreds of carloads have 
been shipped to east- 
ern markets. Deposits 
of hematite and sider- 
ite iron ores are re- 
ported near McAles- 
ter. Copper occurs 
widely scattered in 
Oklahoma, but in 
small amounts. Traces 

of gold and silver occur in the Wichita and Arbuckle 
mountains, but there is little reason for believing that 
either of these minerals will ever be found in large quan- 
tities. Novaculite, or razor-hone rock, occurs in the Ouach- 
ita Mountains^ in the southeastern part of the State. 




Fig. 85. Pioneer Telephone Build- 
ing, Oklahoma City, Built of 
Oklahoma Marble 



142 



GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 



Tripoli, which is used chiefly for making filters, is found 
near the Missouri line. Volcanic ash has been found in 
western Oklahoma. It is used for polishing powder. De- 
posits of phosphate are reported from several regions. 




Fig. 86. Ledge of Glass Sand at Bromide 



MINERAL RESOURCES 143 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Name the chief minerals in Oklahoma. 

2. How are they distributed? 

3. Which are the most important minerals? 

4. Discuss Oklahoma's coal deposits. 

5. Locate the oil and gas fields. 

6. How is the oil produced? How disposed of? 

7. Discuss the gas fields. 

8. Where is asphalt found? For what is it used? 

9. Locate the Salt Springs of Oklahoma. 

10. Where are the Gypsum Hills? 

11. For what is gypsum used? 

12. How much gypsum is there in Oklahoma? 

13. Where does the lead and zinc occur? 

14. Name the chief kinds of building stone in Oklahoma. 

15. Name the chief kinds of clay. 

16. Where is glass sand found? 

17. Name and locate the minor minerals. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
MANUFACTURES, 

Most products, either agricultural or mineral, must be 
manufactured in order to be useful to man. Wheat must 
be ground into flour, cotton, wool and flax must be woven 
into cloth, and cloth made into garments; iron ore must 
be smelted into iron, and the iron made into tools and 
machinery; trees must be sawed into lumber, and the 
lumber used in building houses. All workers in mills, 
factories and industrial plants, as well as carpenters, 
masons and bricklayers and the like, are, in a sense, 
manufacturers. 

Need of Factories. The manufacturing industries of 
Oklahoma are yet in their infancy. Few states have 
either as much raw material or as much fuel for its man- 
ufacture ; but the people of the State are importing prac- 
tically all the manufactured articles they use. The State 
is so young that the people have not yet had time to 
establish manufacturing plants. The total capital em- 
ployed in manufacturing in 1906 was $16,124,417; num- 
ber of wage earners, 5,456 ; wages paid, $2,799,402 ; value 
of products, $24,459,107. 

Clay Products. Pressed brick is being made at a num- 
ber of the larger cities, particularly at Oklahoma City, 
McAlester, Cleveland, Tulsa, Sapulpa, Bartlesville, Mus- 
kogee, Enid and Ardmore. Small plants for the manu- 
facture of common brick are located at a number of 

144 



MANUFACTURES 



145 



towns. Several tile and pottery plants are being located 
in eastern Oklahoma. There is an abundance of good 
clay in many parts of the State. 

Portland Cement. Portland cement plants have been 
located at Dewey (Fig. 87) and Ada, and others are in 
contemplation at Nowata, Bartlesville, Tulsa and Mc- 
Alester. Portland cement is made of limestone and shale. 
Both are ground fine, mixed, and burned at a high tem- 




Fig. 87. Portland Cement Mill at Dewey 

perature in large kilns. The substance is again ground 
fine and then sacked and shipped. There is plenty of 
lime, clay and fuel for the manufacture of Portland 
cement in many parts of the State, but few of these re- 
sources have been utilized. Portland cement is destined 
to take the place of wood, stone and iron for the con- 
struction of all kinds of buildings. Many people now in 
middle life will live to see the time when a new wooden 
house will be a rarity. 



146 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Gypsum Plaster. Gypsum plaster mills have been 
erected at or near Okarche, Alva, Watonga, Ferguson, 
Bickford, Southard, McAlester, Marlow, Eldorado and Ce- 
ment. During 1907, 384,200 tons of wall plaster worth 
$4,610,400 were manufactured. The supply of gypsum in 
Oklahoma is inexhaustible. (See Fig. 88.) The chief diffi- 
culty in the way of profitable manufacture of gypsum 
plaster in Oklahoma is the fact that fuel must be hauled 




Fig. 88. Gypsum Ledges in Western Oklahoma 

for a considerable distance. Neither coal, oil nor gas is 
known to occur in any quantity nearer than 150 miles 
to the gypsum, and the cost of hauling coal so far makes 
the plaster more expensive than it would otherwise be. 

Flour and Oil Mills. There are 76 flour mills in Okla- 
homa having a total daily capacity of 15,000 barrels of 
flour. Perhaps one-third of the wheat raised is ground 
into flour in Oklahoma. Cotton oil mills are located at 
a number of the larger towns. An oil mill built of native 



MANUFACTURES 



147 



limestone is shown in Fig. 89. In them the oil is ex- 
tracted from cottonseed and the seed ground into meal 
which is used for fattening stock. 

Other Manufacturing Plants. Several glass plants are 
being erected in the gas region. Iron foundries, machine 
shops, planing mills, sash and door factories, creameries, 
canning factories and similar industries are located at 
the larger cities. Packing plants are located at Okla- 




FlG. 



Cotton Oil Mill at Madill 



homa City and Muskogee. A cotton mill (Fig. 90) and a 
cereal mill are located at Guthrie. There are a number 
of stone crushers in the State where limestone is crushed 
for railroad ballast and concrete. Oil refineries are located 
at Muskogee, Oklahoma City and Tulsa in which crude 
petroleum is refined into gasoline, benzine, kerosene and 
the lubricating oils. Bartlesville has a zinc smelter, shown 
in Fig. 91. The ores from Joplin and Miami are shipped 
here to be smelted. 




Fig. 90. Interior of a Cotton Mill at Guthrie 




Fig. 91. Zinc Smelter at Bartlesville 



148 



MANUFACTURES 149 

Future of the Manufacturing' Industries in Oklahoma. 

Oklahoma is destined to become one of the wealthiest 
states in the Union. Within the past five years the manu- 
facturing industry has increased more than 200%. The 
great variety and vast amount of the mineral products, 
and the unsurpassed agricultural resources, taken with 
the healthful climate, will combine to make Oklahoma 
a very prosperous state. The thing most needed now is 
the development of the natural resources. 

QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 

1. What are manufactured articles? 

2. Where in Oklahoma is pressed brick manufactured? 

3. Where might clay-products plants be established? 

4. What is Portland cement? 

5. For what is it used? 

6. Of what is it made? 

7. Where in Oklahoma are Portland cement plants located? 

8. Where are gypsum plaster mills located? 

9. Where are flour mills located? Cotton oil mills? 

10. Name and locate some other manufacturing plants. 

11. Why are there so few factories in the State? 

12. What manufacturing plants might be established in your 
county? 

13. Why have they not been located? 



CHAPTER XV. 
COMMERCE. 

The products of the farm, the factory and the mine 
must be transported and sold before they are used. Those 
persons who buy, sell and carry these products are said 
to be engaged in commerce. This includes all merchants, 
both wholesale and retail, all railroad employes and sail- 
ors, all expressmen and telegraph operators. In olden 
times goods were carried in caravans on the backs of 
camels. Even in certain parts of the country today goods 
are carried by stage or wagon, or even by pack trains. 

Land and Water Transportation. By far the greater 
part of the world's commerce is today carried either 
by rail or on water. Water transportation is carried 
either in ships on the ocean or in boats on navigable 
rivers or canals. Water transportation is much cheaper 
than land transportation and for that reason goods are 
always shipped by water whenever possible. 

Oklahoma Rivers. Oklahoma has many rivers, but 
very few of them are suitable for navigation. The 
greater part of the streams have sand-choked channels 
and carry a small amount of water for the greater part 
of the year. The only streams that may some time be 
made . navigable are the Arkansas below the mouth of 
the Grand and the Red River in the eastern part of the 
State. For this reason by far the greater part of the 

150 



COMMERCE 151 

products shipped into or out of Oklahoma must always 
be carried by rail. 

Railroads. Oklahoma has 3,433 miles of railroads. 
Only four counties are without railroads. Four lines 
have a larger mileage in the State than all other roads 
combined. These lines are the Atchison, Topeka and 
Santa Fe, commonly known as the Santa Fe; the St. 
Louis and San Francisco, called the Frisco; the Chicago, 
Rock Island and Pacific, or the Rock Island; and the 
Missouri, Kansas and Texas, or the Katy. Some one of 
these roads touches nearly every county seat in Okla- 
homa and many towns contain two or more of these lines. 
The Santa Fe and Rock Island roads run directly to Chi- 
cago. The Santa Fe touches the Pacific Ocean at Los 
Angeles, and the Gulf of Mexico at Galveston. The Rock 
Island touches El Paso and Denver. The Frisco has four 
main lines of v road which cross Oklahoma, touching at 
Paris, Denison, Vernon and Quanah in Texas. It leads 
directly through St. Louis to Chicago. The Katy road 
runs from St. Louis through Oklahoma to Galveston. All 
these roads have numerous branches which act as feeders 
to the main line. 

The Kansas City Southern road, from Kansas City to 
the Gulf, crosses eastern Oklahoma. A branch of the 
Missouri Pacific runs from Fort Smith, Arkansas, crossing 
the northeastern part of the State to Coffeyville, Kansas. 
Two other roads run west from Fort Smith. The Midland 
Valley passes northwest along the Arkansas River to 
Arkansas City, Kansas, and the Fort Smith and Western 
goes to Guthrie and El Reno. The Kansas City, Mexico 
and Orient road crosses western Oklahoma. The Mis- 



152 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

souri, Oklahoma and Oulf and the Oklahoma Central 
cross the coal fields. 

A study of the map will show that Oklahoma is cob- 
webbed in every direction with railroads. These roads 
carry the products of the farm and mine to other parts 
of the country and bring in the manufactured articles 
from other regions to Oklahoma. Our cotton and flour 
go to Galveston, the nearest Gulf port, from which they 
are shipped by steamer to eastern cities and to Europe. 
Our cattle and hogs go to the packing plants at Kansas 
City, Chicago and Ft. Worth. Our corn and hay go to St. 
Louis, Memphis, New Orleans and eastern markets. Over 
the same roads are carried lumber from Louisiana and 
Texas; salt, brick and Portland cement from Kansas; 
fruits from California; and shoes, clothing and groceries 
from eastern states. Our modern civilization could not 
exist in its present form without railroads. 



QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 

1. Who are engaged in commerce? 

2. How is the world's commerce carried? 

3. Why is transportation on water cheaper than on land? 

4. What part of Oklahoma may some day have water trans- 
portation? 

5. Name the chief railroads in Oklahoma. 

6. What counties are crossed by each? 

7. What important cities outside of Oklahoma are touched 
by each? 

8. What are the chief railroads in your home county? 

9. Over what roads do we export most of the cotton raised in 
Oklahoma? Corn? Cattle? Wheat? 

10. Over what roads do we import most of our oranges? 
Pressed brick? Shoes? Lumber? Sugar? Wagons? 



COMMERCE 153 

11. What roads would you take and where would you change 
cars to go from your home to Oklahoma City 1 ? Alva? Stillwater? 
Norman? Weatherford? Edmond? Tonkawa? Muskogee? Law- 
ton? Miami? Idabel? Sulphur? Medford? Guymon? Bar- 
tlesville? Ardmore? Frederick? 



CHAPTER XVI. 
PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS. 

Initial Point. All the land of Oklahoma has been sur- 
veyed by the Federal government according to a system 
of public land surveys. On a rocky hill a mile south of 
old Fort Arbuckle, eight miles west of Davis, stands a 
stone pillar about four feet high and a foot square. On 
one side are carved the letters I. P. (meaning Indian 
Principal). On the opposite side is the date, 1870. This 
is the point from which all the public land in Oklahoma, 
except Beaver, Texas and Cimarron counties, has been 
surveyed. 

When the United States government decided in 1870 to 
survey the land in what is now the State of Oklahoma, 
a party of surveyors was sent to Fort Arbuckle, which 
was then the army post nearest the center of the area to 
be surveyed. These men went a mile south of the fort and 
selected a point at which to begin. This is called the Ini- 
tial Point. On this point they set up the sandstone pillar. 

Principal Meridian and Range Lines. From the Initial 
Point the surveyors ran a true north and south. line ex- 
tending north to Kansas and south to Texas. This line is 
called the Indian Principal Meridian. They then went six 
miles east of the principal meridian and surveyed another 
north and south line parallel with it. This is known as a 
range line and all land between the principal meridian 

154 



PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS 155 

and this line is said to be in Range 1 East. Six miles 
farther east is a second range line and the land between 
the first and second range lines is in Range 2 East. In 
like manner, running north and south, range lines were 
laid out every six miles apart all the way to the Arkansas 
line. Other range lines were surveyed west of the prin- 
cipal meridian and the land lying between these lines is 
known as Range 1 West, Range 2 West, etc. 

Base Line and Township Lines. Going back to the 
Initial Point a line was surveyed east and west from Ar- 
kansas to the western part of the territory. This is known 
as the Base Line. At intervals of six miles apart north 
and south of the base line, other lines were surveyed, 
known as township lines. The strip of land six miles wide 
running east and west between two township lines is 
known as a township. Thus the six mile strip north of 
the base line and between it and the first township line is 
known as Township 1 North. The strip between the sec- 
ond and third township line south of the base line is 
Township 2 South, etc. 

Congressional Townships*: By this method all the 
territory was cut up into blocks six miles square, known 



*It is unfortunate that the word township is used in three 
senses in the United States: 

First. A township is a strip of land running east and west six 
miles wide, parallel to a base line. 

Second. A congressional township is a tract of land six miles 
square containing thirty-six sections, bounded by range lines and 
township lines. 

Third. A municipal or political township is a subdivision of 
a county which has its own local government and elects its own 
officers. It may contain only a part of a congressional township 
or it may include several congressional townships. 



156 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



as congressional townships. There are in Oklahoma 
about two thousand congressional townships. 

Each congressional township contains 36 square miles 
known as sections, each containing 640 acres. These sec- 
tions are numbered consecutively from 1 to 36, beginning 
on the northeast corner as shown in Fig. 92. 

Sections. Bach section is usually divided into quarter 
sections containing 160 acres. The quarter section is the 
unit of subdivision in granting land to settlers. No person 



6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


.31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



Fig. 



92. Diagram of a Township Showing Lo- 
cation of Sections. 



can homestead more than 160 acres; so that many farms, 
particularly in the western part of the state, are of this 
size. 

The section, however, may be divided into tracts of any 
size as shown in Fig. 93, which represents a section di- 
vided into tracts of 320, 160, 80, 40, 20, and 10 acres. The 
description of tract numbered B would read the South- 
west quarter of section thirty-four, Township four North, 
Range seven East, usually abbreviated to S. W. % Sec. 
34, T. 4 N., R. 7 E., containing one hundred and sixty 



PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS 



157 



acres. The description of tract numbered F would be 
the southeast quarter of the southeast quarter of the 
southeast quarter of section thirty-four, Township four 
north, Range seven East, usually abbreviated to S. E. 14, 
S. E. %, S. E, %, Sec. 34, T. 4 N., R. 7 E., containing ten 
acres. 

Corner Stones. A stone has been placed in the ground 
at each section corner, and usually one at the corner of 
each quarter section. These stones have been marked so 



A 


B 


C 


D 


E 
F 



Pig. 93. Diagram Showing How a Section May 
be Divided. 



that by reading the marks one can locate the section. It 
is easy to learn to read the marks on a corner stone if 
the following rules are observed: 

Along a range line, that is, on the east or west side 
of a township, the marks are on the north and south sides 
of the stone. There will be as many marks on the north 
side of the stone, for instance, as the number of miles to 
the next township corner. On the southeast corner of 
section 12, there will be two marks on the north side of 
the stone and four marks on the south side. On the 



158 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

northeast corner of section 36 there will be five marks 
on the north and one on the south. 

Along township lines, the marks are on the east and 
west sides of the stone and there are as many marks 
as the number of miles to the next township corner. The 
northeast corner of section 2 will have one mark on the 
east and five on the west. 

Except along township and range lines the marks are 
on the east and south sides of the stone, and there are 
as many marks as the number of miles to the east or 
south line of the township. For instance, the stone at the 
corner of sections 10, 11, 14 and 15 will have two marks 
on the east and four on the south because this stone is 
two miles from the east line of the township and four 
miles from the south line. In the center of the township 
at the corner of sections 15, 16, 21 and 22 there will be 
three marks on the east and three on the south. 

In the eastern part of the state, that is in old Indian 
Territory, there is at each township corner an iron pillar, 
standing about three feet above the ground, with a brass 
cap, on which is given the number of the township and 
range as well as the elevation above the sea level. In 
the timbered country section lines may be followed by 
blazes on the trees, and at each section corner the num- 
ber of the land is cut on four trees, one in each section, 
known as witness trees, or bearing trees. 

In the prairie country there are of course no blazes 
nor witness trees. The corner stones are marked how- 
ever. In the older settled parts of the state where roads 
have been opened upon section lines, the marks on the 
corner stones have usually been rubbed off by passing 



PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS 159 

wheels, and in many cases the corner stones themselves 
have been broken down. 

Cimarron Meridian. The land in Cimarron, Texas and 
Beaver counties, which occupy what was formerly known 
as No Man's Land or the Neutral Strip, was not surveyed 
from the same principal meridian or base line as the re- 
mainder of the State. This area, which is about 135 miles 
long east and west and 35 miles wide, was surveyed from 
the Cimarron Meridian, which is the extreme western 
line of the State. The Base Line is the southern line of 
the area, which is also the northern line of the Texas 
Panhandle. 

QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 

1. Where is the initial point for Oklahoma? 

2. What is a principal meridian? 

3. Through what counties does the Indian principal meridian 
pass? 

4. In what range is Muskogee? Iiobart? Newkirk? Durant? 

5. Near what towns does the Oklahoma base line pass? 

6. What is a township? A congressional township? A mu- 
nicipal township? 

7. How are sections numbered? 

8. How are sections divided? 

9. Write the descriptions of an eighty-acre tract; a ten-acre 
tract. 

10. How are corner stones numbered? 

11. What marks are on the corner stone at the southwest cor- 
ner of section 8; northeast corner of section 13; at the center of 
the township; at the northeast corner of section 12; at the north- 
west corner of section 27? 



160 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

12. What are bearing trees? 

13. Where is the Cimarron meridian? 

14. Write the description of some farm in Oklahoma. 

15. Write the description of the forty-acre tract upon which 
your school house is located. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
POPULATION, CITIES AND COUNTIES. • 

Population and Emigration. The population of Okla- 
homa in 1907 was 1,414,177. Of these 75,012 were In- 
dians. Only about one-fourth of the inhabitants of Okla- 
homa were born within the State. The immigration from 
adjoining states has been large, Texas being accredited 
with 153,000; Missouri with 128,000, and Kansas with 
111,000. Every state and territory in the Union is rep- 
resented in Oklahoma. In the western part of the State 
there are a few colonies of Germans and Russians, but by 
far the greater part of the inhabitants are American- 
born. 

By far the greater part of the people in Oklahoma live 
in the country. The government census showed that only 
about 250,000 persons, or one in six, lived in towns of 
over 1,000 population. 

Growth of Cities. A city may be located by accident, 
but no city ever became great by accident. Cities natural- 
ly grow up where there are particular advantages in the 
way of manufacturing, mining, or commerce. New York, 
Galveston, Chicago, Seattle and New Orleans are exam- 
ples of cities that owe their importance largely to com- 
merce. Lowell, Rochester and Niagara Falls are manu- 
facturing centres because they are located near extensive 
water power. Butte, Joplin, Scranton and Birmingham 

161 



162 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

are mining centres. Pittsburg and St. Louis are exam- 
ples of cities which have favorable location for both man- 
ufacturing and commerce. Pittsburg is located at the 
head of navigation on the Ohio river near the vast coal 
and gas deposits. St. Louis is near coal fields also and 
near the point where the Missouri and Ohio enter the 
Mississippi. Occasionally a city becomes large which 
seems to have no particular reason for doing so. Exam- 
ples are Denver, Indianapolis and Dallas. These towns 
sometimes owe their prominence to the number of rail- 
roads, or to being natural distributing centres, but more 
often to the energy of "town builders." 

Oklahoma Cities. Nowhere in the world have towns 
grown faster than in Oklahoma. Twenty years ago the 
State was a raw prairie ; today it is dotted with hun- 
dreds of towns. The largest towns are those that have 
had some advantage of railroad or rich farming com- 
munities. Most of the larger towns in the Territory of 
Oklahoma were the original county-seat towns. A few 
large ones, such as Ponca, Blackwell, Weatherford and 
Geary, are not county seats. On the Indian Territory 
side of the State such towns as McAlester, Wilburton, 
Coalgate, Lehigh, Tulsa and Bartlesville owe their im- 
portance largely to the location of mineral. Durant, Ard- 
more, Vinita and Chickasha are in fine farming com- 
munities. Muskogee, the largest town in eastern Okla- 
homa, owes its importance partly to its location near the 
head of navigation on the Arkansas and partly to the 
fact that the headquarters of the Dawes Commission was 
located there. 

The report of the Government census taken in Septem- 
ber, 1907, showed that Oklahoma had at that time 95 



POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 



163 



cities with a population exceeding 1,000, of which 44 have 
more than 2,000 and 5 more than 10,000 population. The 
more important cities of the State will be discussed in 
the order of their population. 

Oklahoma City, the largest city in Oklahoma, is located 
within twenty miles of the geographical center of the 
State. It is a railroad center and carries on a large 
wholesale trade, having 185 manufacturing and jobbing 




Fig. 94. A Modern Office Building at Oklahoma City 

houses and ten banks. There are 40 miles of asphalt 
streets, 73 miles of sewers and 120 miles of brick and ce- 
ment sidewalk. It is a prominent cotton and grain mar- 
ket, approximately 100,000 bales of cotton and 1,200,000 
barrels of flour being handled annually. Epworth Uni- 
versity, a denominational school, and several private busi- 
ness and academic schools, are located here. Fig. 94 
shows an office building and Fig. 95 the Court House in 
Oklahoma City. 



164 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 

Muskogee, the second city of importance in Ok- 
lahoma, is located near the mouth of the Verdigris and 
Grand rivers and at the head of navigation of the Arkan- 
sas River. Muskogee has four competing lines of railroad, 
a number of wholesale houses and factories and is located 
near rich oil, gas, coal and mineral deposits, and not 
far from cheap water power. Three denominational col- 
leges, Bacone, Spaulding and Nazareth, are located here. 







nil 

-* Up 


'' k 




4 *^4"*a 



Fig. 95. Court House at Oklahoma City 

Muskogee is the seat of the Indian agency and was for 
years the headquarters of the Dawes Commission. 

Guthrie, the present capital of the State, is the county 
seat of Logan County. It has 50 factories and wholesale 
houses, six competing lines of railway and a large retail 
trade. 

Shawnee is located in a rich farming country in the 
valley of the North Canadian River; cotton and potatoes 
being the chief crops shipped. The city contains 37 fac- 



POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 



165 



tories and 15 jobbing houses. The Rock Island shops are 
located here. 

Enid, the largest city in the northwestern part of the 
State, owes its prominence to the number of railroads 
which converge here and to the wholesale and retail 
trade. It is the center of the wheat producing section of 
the State. A denominational school, the Oklahoma Chris- 
tian University, is located at Enid. 




Fig. 96. Masonic Temple at McAlester 



Ardmore, the largest city in southern Oklahoma, has a 
large cotton trade and is located near rich asphalt, oil 
and mineral deposits. There are several factories and 
wholesale houses. It has three competing lines of rail- 
road. See Fig. 80. 

McAlester, the largest city in the southeastern part of 
the State, owes its prominence to the vast deposits of coal 
and other minerals located near at hand. The town has a 
number of wholesale houses and manufacturing estab- 



166 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



lishments and is the chief coal shipping point of the State. 
A street railroad connects McAlester with a number of 
suburban towns. Fig. 96 is the Masonic Temple at Mc- 
Alester, and Fig. 97 a hotel in the same city. 

Chickasha, the county seat of Grady County, which is 
one of the richest counties in the State, is a distributing 
point for southwest Oklahoma. It has three competing 
lines of railroads and a number of jobbing houses. 



B El D 



^£0 . 

I B □ 




Fig. 97. Busby Hotel at McAlester 



Tulsa is situated on the Arkansas river near the cen- 
ter of the oil and gas region of Oklahoma. A burning oil 
tank near Tulsa is shown in Fig. 98. Coal, clay and 
limestone are found near at hand. The city has several 
lines of railroad and a number of manufacturing plants. 
A denominational college, Henry Kendall, is located at 
Tulsa. 

Lawton, the county seat of Comanche County, is lo- 



POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 



167 



cated near Fort Sill, at the eastern end of the Wichita 
Mountains. It has a large cotton and grain trade. 

El Reno, the county seat of Canadian County, is at the 
junction of two important lines of railroad. It is the cen- 
ter of a rich farming country and has a large cotton and 
grain trade. 

Durant, in Bryan County, the second largest city in 




Fig. 98. Smoke from Burning Oil 



southern Oklahoma, has a denominational school and a 
State Normal school. It has a large cotton trade. 

Sapulpa, in Creek County, is an important railroad cen- 
ter, situated near the center of the oil and gas fields of 
the State. Fig. 99 is a bird's-eye view of Sapulpa, with 
smoke from burning oil in the distance. 

Bartlesville is the county seat of Washington County, 
which is one of the wealthiest counties in the State. One 
of the largest known gas fields in the world is located 




168 



POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 169 

near the city. The city has zinc smelters, glass and brick 
plants and a Portland cement plant is located near by. 

Ada, in Pontotoc County, in the center of a rich farming 
country, contains a State Normal school. A Portland 
cement mill is located here. 

Vinita, the largest city in northeastern Oklahoma, is 
the county seat of Craig County. It is near the oil and 
gas fields and is the center of a rich farming country. 

Norman, in Cleveland County is the seat of the State 
University, the head of the State school system. It has a 
good grain and cotton market. 

Stillwater, in Payne County, is the seat of the Agricul- 
tural College. 

Alva, the county seat of Woods County; Edmond, 
in northern Oklahoma County, and Weatherford, in 
Custer County, contain State normal schools. 

Brief mention may be made of the following cities 
which fall below 3,000 in population: 

Sulphur, in Murray County, is located near Piatt Na- 
tional Park, where are a number of medicinal springs. 

Coalgate and Lehigh, in Coal County, are in the center 
of one of the most productive coal regions in the State. 

Perry, in Noble County, is the center of a good wheat 
and corn country. 

Newkirk, Blackwell and Ponca City are large towns in 
Kay County, which is one of the richest counties of the 
State. 

Hobart, in Kiowa County, and Mangum, in Greer 
County, are noted cotton markets. 

Hartshorne, Haileyville, Wilburton and Poteau are coal 
towns in eastern Oklahoma. 



170 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



Wagoner, Okmulgee, Claremore, Miami and Nowata 
are county seats in eastern Oklahoma. 

Tahlequah is the county seat of Cherokee County, the 
capital of the former Cherokee Nation. It has fine springs 
of soft water. A Normal school is located here. 

Tishomingo, Purcell, Duncan, Hugo, Pauls Valley and 
Marietta are county seats in southern Oklahoma. 

Pawhuska was the capital of the Osage Nation ; Wewoka 
of the old Seminoles, and Okmulgee of the former Creek 
Nation. 

Chandler, Kingfisher, Elk City, Anadarko, Frederick, 
Wynnewood and Woodward are cities of over 2,000 popu- 
lation. 

Counties. The State is divided into 75 counties. The 
smallest county is Washington with 440 square miles; 
the largest is Osage with 2,297 square miles. The most 
populous county is Oklahoma with 55,849 people ; the least 
populous is Cimarron with 5,293. 

The following table includes the names of the counties, 
with the area and population of each, as well as the name 
and population of the county seat, according to the Fed- 
eral census taken in 1907. The figures are those of the 
census taken the same year: 



AREA 

NAME sq. jni. POP. 

Adair 612 9,115 

Alfalfa 888 16,070 

Atoka 990 12,013 

Beaver .1,890 13,364 

Beckham ....1,044 17,379 

Blaine 1,008 17,277 

Bryan 900 27,865 



COUNTY SEAT POP. 

Westville 941 

Cherokee 964 

Atoka 1,700 

Beaver 271 

Sayre 1,179 

Watonga 1,608 

Durant 4,516 



POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 



171 



AREA 
NAME sq. mi. POP. 

Caddo 1,386 30,241 

Canadian 900 20,110 

Carter 800 36,402 

Cherokee .... 792 14,274 

Choctaw 825 17,340 

Cimarron ....1,450 4,293 

Coal 522 15,585 

Cleveland .... 576 18,460 

Comanche ...1,723 31,938 

Craig 775 14,955 

Creek 972 18,365 

Custer 1,008 19,478 

Delaware .... 770 9,876 

Dewey 1,029 13,329 

Ellis 1,041 13,978 

Garfield 1,080 28,300 

Garvin 846 22,787 

Grady 936 23,420 

Grant 1,008 17,638 

Greer 1,116 23,624 

Harper 980 8,089 

Haskell 612 16,856 

Hughes 792 19,945 

Jackson 720 13,439 

Jefferson .... 780 13,439 

Johnston 666 18,672 

Kay 927 22,165 

Kingfisher ... 900 9,349 

Kiowa 1,486 24,678 

Latimer 756 37,294 

Leflore 1,731 30,707 



COUNTY SEAT POP. 

Anadarko 2,190 

El Reno 5,370 

Ardmore 8,749 

Tahlequah 1,916 

Hugo 2,676 

Kenton 225 

Lehigh 2,188 

Norman 3,040 

Lawton 5,562 

Vinita 3,157 

Sapulpa 4,294 

Arapaho 610 

Grove 694 

Talo£a 430 

Grand 200 

Enid 10,087 

Pauls Valley 2,157 

Chickasha 7,896 

Pond Creek , . 2,200 

Mangum 2,672 

Buffalo 500 

Stigler 1,001 

Holdenville 1,868 

Altus 1,927 

Ryan 1,115 

Tishomingo 1,300 

Newkirk 1,788 

Kingfisher 2,300 

Hobart 3,136 

Wilburton 1,451 

Poteau 1,726 



172 



GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 



AKEA 
NAME sq. mi. 

Lincoln 967 

Logan 737 

Love 500 

Major 1,144 

Marshall 450 

Mayes 684 

McClain 600 

McCurtain . ..1,942 

Mcintosh 666 

Murray 450 

Muskogee .... 828 

Nowata 576 

Noble 675 

Okfuskee .... 648 
Okmulgee .... 684 
Oklahoma ... 720 

Osage 2,297 

Ottawa 504 

Pawnee 720 

Payne 720 

Pittsburg .... 1,368 

Pontotoc 684 

Pottawatomie.. 864 
Pushmataha .1,422 
Roger Mills . . 1,122 

Rogers 638 

Seminole ... . . 605 
Sequoyah .... 638 

Stephens 810 

Texas 1,962 

Tillman 720 



POP. COUNTY SEAT POP. 

11,134 Chandler .. 2,234 

14,307 Guthrie 11,648 

13,081 Marietta 1,391 

11,065 Fairview 887 

12,888 Madill 1,587 

10,359 Pryor Creek 1,103 

17,975 Purcell 2,552 

11,948 Idabell 600 

17,975 Eufaula 950 

11,948 Sulphur 2,936 

38,341 Muskogee 14,418 

10,453 Nowata 223 

11,198 Perry 2,881 

15,595 Okemah 1,027 

14,362 Okmulgee 2,322 

55,849 Oklahoma City 32,431 

15,332 Pawhuska 2,407 

12,827 Miami 400 

17,112 Pawnee 1,943 

22,022 Stillwater 2,577 

37,677 McAlester 8,142 

23,057 Ada 3,257 

43,272 Tecumseh 1,621 

8,295 Antlers 854 

12,230 Cheyenne 600 

15,485 Claremore 2,064 

14,687 Wewoka 794 

22,450 Sallisaw 1,689 

20,148 Duncan 2,451 

16,428 Guymon 839 

12,869 Frederick 2,036 



POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 



173 



AREA 

NAME eq. mi. 

Tulsa ... 900 

Wagoner .... 576 
Washington . . 440 

Washita 1,008 

Woods 1,200 

Woodward . . . 1,224 



POP. COUNTY SEAT POP. 

21,693 Tulsa 7,588 

19,529 Wagoner 2,950 

12,813 Bartlesville 4,215 

22,006 Cordell 1,393 

15,517 Alva 2,800 

14,595 Woodward 2018 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. What is the population of Oklahoma? 

2. How do cities become great? 

3. Account for the growth of Oklahoma City. 

4. Name the ten largest cities in Oklahoma. 

5. Name and locate the counties of Oklahoma. 

6. Name the county seat of each county. 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Ammonite, am'-mo-nite 
Anadarko, an-a-dar -ko 
Arapaho, a-rap'-a-ho 
Arbuckle, ar'-buck-le 
Arkansas, ar -kan-saw, 

or ar-kan'-sas 
Atoka, a-to'-ka 
Bokoshe, bo-ko'-she 
Brachiopod, brak'-e-o-pod 
Cache, kash 
Cambrian, kam -bre-an 
Canadian, ka-na -di-an 
Carboniferous, kar-bon-if - 

er-ous 
Catoosa, ka-too -sa 
Checotah, she-co'-ta 
Chelsea, chel -se-a 
Cherokee, cher'-o-kee 
Cheyenne, shi-en' 
Chickasaw, chick'-a-saw 
Chickasha, chick'-a-shay 
Choctaw, chock'-taw 
Cimarron, sim-ar-rone' 
Concharty, kon-char'-ty 
Cretaceous, kre-ta'-shus 
Crinoid, kri'-noid 
Devonian, de-vo'-ni-an 



Eufaula, u-fau'-la 
Illinois, il-li-noi' 
Jurassic, ju-ras'-sic 
Kiamitia, ki-a-me'-sha 
Kickapoo, kick'-a-poo 
Kiowa, ki -o-wa 
Muskogee, mus-ko'-gee 
Neosho, ne-o'-sho 
Nowata, no-wa'-ta 
Okemah, o-ke'-ma 
Okfuskee, ok-fus'-kee 
Okmulgee, ok-mul'-gee 
Oklahoma, ok-la-ho'-ma 
Ordovician, or-do-ve'-shan 
Osage, o'-saj 
Ottawa, ot'-ta-wa 
Oteo, o'-toe 
Ouachita, wa'-she-taw 
Ozark, o'-zark 
Pawhuska, paw-hus'-ka 
Permian, per'-mi-an 
Peoria, pe-o -ri-a 
Ponca, pon -ka 
Pontotoc, pon'-to-tok 
Poteau, po -toe 
Pottawatomie, pot-ta-wat'- 
to-mie 



174 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



175 



Pushmataha, push-ma-ta'-ha 
Quapaw, qua'-paw 
Quaternary, qua-ter'-na-ry 
Sallisaw, salMi-saw 
Sansbois, sandboy 
Sapulpa, sa-pul'-pa 
Seminole, sem'-i-nole 
Seneca, sen'-e-ka 
Sequoyah, se-quoy'-ah 
Silurian, si-lu'-ri-an 
Spavinaw, spav'-i-naw 
Tahlequah, tah'-le-quah 
Taloga, ta-lo'-ga 



Tecumseh, te-kum'-se 
Tertiary, ter -shi-a-ry 
Tishomingo, tish-o-min -go 
Tonkawa, tong'-ka-wa 
Triassic, tri-as'-sic 
Trilobite, tri'-lo-bite 
Tulsa, tul'-sa 
Verdigris, ver'-de-gree 
Vinita, ve-ne'-ta 
Washita, wa'-she-taw 
Watonga, wa-tung'-ga 
Wewoka, we-wo'-ka 
Wichita, wich'-e-taw 



INDEX 



Page 

Ada 169 

Admission of Oklahoma. 98 

Air 63 

Alfalfa 118 

Alva 169 

Arbuckle Mountains .... 10 

Ardmore 165 

Arkansas River 51 

Arkansas Valley Region. . . 15 

Artesian Wells 48 

Asphalt 133 

Bartlesville 167 

Birds 80 

Boundaries of Oklahoma.. 2 

Broom Corn 117 

Building Stone 138 

Carboniferous Rocks 35 

Cattle 122 

Character of Settlers.... 98 

Cherokee Strip 94 

Chickasha 166 

Church Schools 106 

Cimarron River 57 

City Schools 104 

Cities, growth of 161 

Clay 138 

Clay Products 144 

Climate 68-72 

Coal 128 

Constitution 108 

Corn 115 

Corn, broom 117 

Cotton 117 



Page 

County Schools 103 

Counties 170 

Cretaceous Rocks 39 

Crops, minor 121 

Cyclones 67 

Dairying 124 

Dawes Commission 97 

Disposal of Rainfall..... 43 

Drainage 50 

Drainage Basins 51 

Durant 167 

Edmond 169 

Education 102 

El Reno 167 

Enid 165 

Emigration 161 

Executive Department ... 109 

Factories 144 

Fauna 74-78 

Fishes 82 

Five Civilized Tribes.... 83 
Five Civilized Tribes, 

migration of 84 

Five Civilized Tribes, 

disposal of land .... 84 

Flora 74-75 

Flour and Oil Mills 146 

Fruits 120 

Fuels 126 

Gas 133 

Geology 25 



INDEX 



177 



Page 

Geologic Periods 26 

Government 108 

Government, executive 

department 109 

Government, judicial de- 
partment 110 

Government, legislative 

department 108 

Government, local 110 

Government Maps 3 

Grand River 54 

Grasses 77 

Great Plains 5 

Greer County 95 

Guthrie 164 

Gypsum 136 

Gypsum Hills Region.... 20 

Gypsum Plaster 146 

Hay 118 

High Plains Region 22 

Hogs 123 

Horses 123 

Humidity 64-70 

Igneous Rocks 28 

Indians, settlement of . . . 86 

Indians, mode of life 89 

Indian Territory 96 

Jurassic Rocks 39 

Judicial Department .... 110 

Kiowa Country 95 

Lakes 60 

Land Surveys 154-159 

Lawton 166 

Lead and Zinc 137 

Legislative Department.. 108 

Lizards 81 

Location of Oklahoma... 1 

Manufacturing Plants 147 

McAlester 165 

Minerals in Oklahoma... 126 

Mineral Springs 46 



Page 

Minor Crops 121 

Mississippian Rocks 36 

Mistletoe 77 

Mode of Life Among 

Indians 89 

Muskogee 164 

No Man's Land 93 

Norman 169 

North Canadian River.... 55 

Oats and Other Grains.. 116 

Oil 126 

Oklahoma City 163 

Oldest Rocks in Oklahoma 28 

Opening of Oklahoma... 92 
Origin of Arbuckle and 

Wichita Mts 33 

Origin of Streams 50 

Original Owners of Okla- 
homa 83 

Ouachita Mountains .... 9 

Ozark Mountains 6 

Pennsylvanian Rock 36 

Permian Rocks 38 

Population 161 

Portland Cement 145 

Potatoes _ 121 

Poteau River 54 

Poultry 124 

Precipitation 65 

Quaternary Rocks 41 

Railroads 151 

Rainfall 70 

Redbeds Plains Region.. 19 

Religion 106 

Red River 59 

Red River Region 16 

Reservations, Other 93 

Residual Soil 113 

Rivers, Navigation on... 150 

Salt 134 

Salt Fork River ..; 57 



178 



INDEX 



Page 

Sand 140 

Sandstone Hills Region.. 17 

Sapulpa 167 

Shawnee 164 

School Laws 102 

Schools, city 104 

Schools, country 103 

Schools, church 106 

Schools, state 105 

Sedimentary Rocks 27 

Settlement of Indians ... 86 
Settlement of Oklahoma. 91-92 

Snakes 81 

Springs 44 

Springs, mineral 46 

Soil Areas 112 

Soil, residual 113 

Soil, transported 114 

South Canadian River... 55 

State Superintendent 103 

Streams, character of.... 51 

Streams, chief 50 

Streams, origin of 50 

Stillwater 169 

Stock Raising 122 

Surveys of Land 154-159 

Temperature 63-69 

Tertiary Rocks 39 



Page 

Topographic Regions ... 6 

Transportation 150 

Transported Coil 114 

Trees x . 75 

Triassic Rocks 39 

Tulsa 166 

Turtles 81 

Underground Water .... 43 
Underground Water, 

movement of 44 

Vegetables 121 

Verdigris River 54 

Vinita 169 

Washita River 58 

Weather 63 

Weather Bureau 65 

Weatherford 169 

Wells 46 

Wells, Artesian 48 

Wheat 116 

Wichita Mountains 14 

Wild Animals 78 

Wind 64-69 

Zinc 137 



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